Theoretical and practical aspects of the article in Modern English
Ministry
of Education and Science of UkraineNational Linguistic Universityof Germanic
and Finno-Ugrian Philology
Papergrammar
of the English language
«Theoretical
and practical aspects of the article in Modern English»
2013
Міністерство
освіти і науки України
Київський
національний лінгвістичний університет
Кафедра
германської і фіно-угорської філології
КУРСОВА
РОБОТА
з
теоретичної граматики англійської мови
на тему:
«
Теоретичний та практичний аспекти вивчення артикля в сучасній англійській мові»
Київ
2013
Introduction
theme of course paper is
«Theoretical and practical aspects of the article in Modern English». The
topicality of course work is connected with contrоversial article usage in
Modern English. The articles perform a discourse function, by indicating new
and old information. And this function is realized in practice through certain
articles usage. The problem of article determination has given rise to much
controversy; there is much dispute about the status of the article itself and
the status of its combination with the noun. The article is often defined as a
unit whose main function is to actualize the concept of the referent in a
particular text; in other words, the article correlates the notion of the referent
with actual reality subjectively, as presented by the speaker (writer).object
of course paper is: indefinite meaning expressed by articles a/an and zero
article, usage of the definite article the with examples being selected from
the novel « Everything is illuminated» by Jonathan Safran Foer.aim of course
paper is to investigate the linguistic status of the article in Modern English
along with its main function of noun determiner providing main tendencies in
article usage with examples from the novel « Everything is illuminated».task of
course paper is to show the articles applying tendencies based on their usages,
most of which can not be fully underpinned by general rules.
1. The linguistic status of the
article
question is: is the article a
separate part of speech or a word morpheme? If we treat the article as a word,
we shall have to admit that English has only two articles -
the definite article the and the indefinite article a/an. But if we treat the
article as a word-morpheme, we shall have three articles - the, a/an and the
zero article ø. B.Ilyish states that the choice between the two
alternatives remains a matter of opinion. The
scholar gives a slight preference to the view that the article is a word, but argues
that: « we cannot for the time being at least prove that it is the only correct
view of the English article ». [12;57].Blokh regards the article as a special
type of grammatical auxiliary: «The article itself is a special type of
grammatical auxiliary»[1; 85] Linguists are only agreed on the function of the
article: the article is a determiner, or a restricter. The linguistic status of
the article reminds us of the status of
shall/will in I shall/will go. Both of the structures are still felt to be semantically
related to their ‘parent’ structures: the numeral one and the demonstrative
that (Old English sē) and the modals shall and will, respectively. The
articles, according to some linguists, do
not form a grammatical category. As is pointed out by B.Khaimovich and
Rogovskaya: «the members of an opposeme must belong to the same lexeme and have
identical meanings» [7;214] The articles, they argue, do not belong to the same
lexeme, and they do not have meaning common to them: a/an has the meaning of oneness,
not found in the, which has a demonstrative meaning. For this reason, they
argue, a book and the book are not analytic structures.. Ylyish thinks that:
«There seems to be nothing to prevent us from thinking that a room is an
analytical form of the noun room...»[12;57] If we treat the article as a
morpheme, then we shall have to set up a grammatical category in the noun, the
category of determination. This category will have to have all the
characteristic features of a grammatical category: common meaning and
distinctive meaning. So what is common to a room and the room?nouns are
restricted in meaning, they refer to an individual member of the class ‘room’.
What makes them distinct is that a room has the feature (-Definite), while the
room has the feature (+Definite). In this opposition the definite article is
the strong member and the indefinite article is the weak member. The same
analysis can be extended to abstract and concrete countable nouns, e.g.
courage: a courage vs. the courage. Consider: He has a courage equaled by few
of his contemporaries vs. She would never have the courage to defy him. In
contrast to countables, restricted uncountables are used with two indefinite
articles: a/an and zero. The role of the indefinite article is to individuate a
subamount of the entity which is presented here as an aspect (type, sort) of
the entity. Consider also: Jim has a good knowledge of Greek, where a denotes a
subamount of knowledge, Jim’s knowledge of Greek. A certain difficulty arises
when we analyze such sentences as The horse is an animal and I see a horse. Do
these nouns also form the opposemes of the category of determination? We think
that they do not: the horse is a subclass of the animal class; a horse is also
restricted - it denotes an individual member of the horse subclass. Cf.horse is
an animal vs. A horse is an animal. Unlike the nouns in the above examples, the
nouns here exhibit determination at the same level: both the horse and a horse
express a subclass of the animal class.
2. Noun: The Category of
Determination
English grammars normally refer
articles to determiners, words preceding nouns. They are often defined as: «a
problem area in English for students even at advanced level, especially for
those whose own language has a very different article system»[11; 272] «Article
is a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative
collocation»[1; 74]
« The articles of English serve the
functions of determining or pointing out the particularized or generalized
nature or aspect of the meaning of the nouns or words they modify »[2; 45]term
determination, as used here, means the actualization of the functions
(semantic, grammatical, informational, and pragmatic) of the noun.
[15;56]determination of the nounnouns, the noun presents a dialectical unity of
genus (class) and individual. In the text, it may be actualized as a
representative of the class or a subclass as a whole or as an individual member
of the class or a subclass.the following sentences:
. The dog is an animal.
. A dog is an animal.
. Any dog is an animal.
. Dogs are animals.
. All dogs are animals.
. I see a dog.
. The dog is under the
table.sentences illustrate different types of semantic determination (or
restriction): in sentences (1-5) the noun dog refers to the subclass as a
whole; in sentences (6 and 7) the noun dog refers to an individual member of
the subclass. As for the ‘subclass’ function, the sentences demonstrate
different subtypes of determination: in sentence (1) the subclass is presented
as an undifferentiated (indiscrete) unit, which reminds us of mass nouns
(abstract or material); in sentences (2 and 3) the subclass is represented
through a typical individual member; in sentences (4 and 5) the subclass is
represented through individual members. As the said sentences describe a
generalized situation, the nouns in them do not refer to a specific member or
specific members of the subclass; they only denote a specific subclass. Only in
sentences (6 and 7) do they refer to a specific (concrete) member. Specificity
is of two types: particular and non-particular, or to put it in traditional
terms, definite and indefinite. There is only one problem here: how should we
treat the article used with the noun dog in the first sentence? Does it
function as a particularizer? It does. To understand this we can consider the
diagram:
Pic. 1
square in the section The dog
subclass stands for an individual representative of the subclass. If we mean
any representative of the subclass, we say, a dog; if we mean a particular
(unique) representative of the subclass, we say the dog. It will be obvious
that any member can be rendered particular. different situation is observed
when we deal with the animal class as a whole. Here each big square stands for
a subclass: dogs, cats, horses, cows, sheep, whales, dolphins, etc. Each
subclass is unique, there is only one such subclass in the animal class. That
is, we cannot say any dog subclass. Cf. any dog. We can only say the dog
subclass.
The constr uction the dog in The dog
is an animal is then the result of the elision of the noun subclass (Cf. The
river Thames the Thames vs. the subclass ‘dog’ the dog), and the article the is
a reminder of the elision. Functionally, subclass is similar to river in the
river Thames and dog is similar to Thames in the same construction, dog and
Thames are identifying , or particularizing names. However, the result of the
elision may also be a construction in which the identifying name is preceded by
the zero article, e.g. the writer Dickens, the continent Europe, the country
Italy Dickens, Europe, Italy.
These are proper nouns proper, while
those with the definite article are still in the process of
development.nounsnouns do not much differ from countables as concerns the
realization of the category of determination: in the text they may be
actualized as representatives of the entities as a whole or an individual
manifestation of the entities.:
. Beauty is rare.
. They had a courage that no defeats
would crush.
. Mary’s beauty simply paralysed
him.sentence (1) the noun beauty stands for the entity as a whole; in sentence
(2 and 3) the nouns courage and beauty refer to an individual manifestation of
entities: courage denotes a non-particular, specific manifestation (aspect) and
beauty, a particular, specific manifestation of the notion.How important is the
article as a semantic determiner? The definite article generally needs the
support of the co-text: off the co-text nouns determined by the definite
article are semantically ambiguous, e.g. the dog, the robbery of old people.the
dog mean a specific particular dog or a particular class? Does the noun robbery
mean a specific or a particular manifestation of the entity? We cannot answer
the question without recourse to the cotext. Only the indefinite article is an
unambiguous marker: it marks the noun as an individual representative or an
individual aspect of the entity. However, it cannot tell us whether the noun
means a specific or a non-specific individual. The conclusion that we can draw
from this analysis is that language often needs more than one signal to realize
its meanings, the most powerful signal being the context or the
co-text.determination of the nounarticle is generally treated as a marker of
the noun - full or partial, e.g. a man, the rich. However, not all nouns are
invariably used with the ‘material’ article, e.g. strength. Even countables are
not always preceded by the material article, e.g. books. Besides the article,
nouns are identified in the sentence by other determiners (pronouns, numerals),
prepositions, by the presence of appropriate affixes, their relative position.
The role of the article is often secondary, or supplementary. To prove this,
compare the texts below: the original and its version in which the nouns have
been stripped of the articles:was a hot day. The two windows opened upon the
distant murmur of London. The burning sun of July danced on the rosy and grey
waters of the Thames (J.Galsworthy).was hot day. Two windows opened upon distant
murmur of London. Burning sun of July danced on rosy and grey waters of
Thamesthe absence of the articles in the second text, the reader still finds
the passage comprehensible from a semantic point of view. The elimination of
the definite article from the word-combination two windows only affects the
communicative structure of the sentence as compared to the original: the two
windows conveys thematic information, while two windows conveys rhematic
information. Yet, we should not minimize the role of the article as a
noun-marker: the article speeds up the process of identification and,
consequently, it speeds up the process of the comprehension of the
text.determination of the noun
“Information is a process of
interaction between what is already known or predictable and what is new or
unpredictable”. The sentence, which is a unit of information, is a structure
made up of two parts: the New and the Given. By Given Information is meant
information shared by both the speaker and the addressee: it may be recoverable
from the context or familiar to them due to the shared environment. Besides the
context, Givenness and Newness can be expressed by the definite and indefinite
article, respectively.the following text:man and a woman were sitting on a park
bench. The man was about forty years old. The woman was somewhat younger. The
bench had recently been painted.important is the definite article as a marker
of Givenness? In this type of text, where Givenness is established through the
secondary mention of the entity, the article plays a supplementary role. But in
texts where Givenness is established through the shared knowledge of the
environment or the world in general, the article plays a primary role.:. Where
did you find the cat?. In the car.Givennes is not marked in any way, the text
may lose communicative cohesion.the following part of the text:was a hot day.
Two windows opened upon the distant murmur of London.text “comes off its
hinges”: the referents of two windows are not treated as part of the shared environment;
the use of the indefinite article, i.e. the zero article, suggests that the
author speaks of some other two windows, not the windows of the shared
environment. In other words, the zero article signals to the reader that two
windows is new information.determination of the noun, the noun can function as
the Theme and the Rheme. The Theme is what we are talking about, and the Rheme
is what we are saying about the Theme. Naturally, an utterance containing only
the Rheme will not be undersood , the same with utterences containing the Theme
only.can consider following examples:ship (Theme) was glistening in the sun
(Rheme).are generally selected from Given while Rhemes from both New and Given
entities.(Theme) wrote a novel (Rheme). vs. John (Theme) wrote the
novel(Rheme).Theme and the Rheme may be signalled by the article: the Theme by
the definite article and the Rheme by both indefinite and definite.:strange dog
came to the porch. The dog seemed very friendly.reference of articlesis generic
when a noun phrase refers to the whole class, rather than just one or more
instances of the class. In the English language all three articles (the, a/an,
zero article) can be used for generic reference. According to this we it is
possible to distinguish such types of generic reference:Generic: the + Singular
Nountiger is in danger of becoming extinct.Generic: 0 + Plural Noun [0 = Zero,
the number]are in danger of becoming extinct.Generic: a + Singular Nountiger is
in danger of becoming extinct.are constructions, which means that the phrase
itself, and its usage, have special grammar and special meanings. It's not that
the articles the or a have special meaning, really -- they hardly have any
meaning; rather, their use in these generic constructions marks them as special.to
use and meaning, while there are many, many special cases and idioms, one can
roughly equate the three generic noun phrase constructions with three different
functions. Each refers to some species (of plant, animal, thing, person,
cathedral, or whatever; not just biological species), but there are several
ways of doing this:Definite Generic refers to the Prototype of a species,
roughly the image we associate with tiger. The tiger, as a prototype, has all
the properties of anything we would call a tiger, except that it doesn't exist
in an individual physical sense, like all real tigers do. This is a very
abstract concept, and its use signals that the speaker is theorizing.tiger is
big means the speaker believes that "bigness", in some comparative
context, is a characteristic property of tigers, that we should expect this to
be true of any tiger.Plural Generic refers to the Norm of a species over its
individuals, as perceived, of course, by the speaker, who is unlikely to have
conducted tiger surveys, so the "statistics" here are very vague and
impressional.are big means the speaker believes that, on the average, any tiger
is likely to be "big". This doesn't mean all tigers are big, though
that's close. This is potentially a less abstract concept, since its use
implies a generalization based on experience of several individuals.Indefinite
Generic refers to the Definition of a species, that is, those properties that
are absolutely necessary for anything to be a member. It doesn't work as the
subject of any predicate that isn't definitional. But with a definitional
property, it's certainly true for any member., the sentence A tiger is in
danger of becoming extinct.
one is saying that being in danger of becoming extinct is one of the defining
characteristics of tigerhood, which isn't true, after all. Tigers would still
be tigers if they weren't endangered.
3. Indefinite meaning expressed
by a/an
indefinite article expresses
classification, or relative, classifying generalization of the referent, which
means that this article refers the object denoted to a certain class.use of
a/anindefinite article is often used while introducing a new specific entity
into the discourse.example:12- year old boy got mad on his parents Friday night
because they refused to let him go fishing on the Colorado River with
relatives. So, while his parents were distracted during a barbecue with eight
adult friends, he slipped away from his sister and three brothers, snatched the
keys to a Volkswagen Beetle and drove off in one of his parent's four cars,
prompting fears that he had been kidnapped <…..> El Cajon police sent
teletype descriptions of the curly haired , 90-pound sixth-grader to law
enforcement agencies throughout Southern California and the Arizona border
area. The boy was found unharmed - but scared and sleepy - at about noon
yesterday by San Diego Country sheriff 's deputies. (news)indefinite article a
(12- year old boy) introduces a pecific, but unnamed and unknown boy;
afterwards the boy is referred to by pronouns (him, he) and definite noun
phrase (the curly haired , 90-pound sixth-grader and the boy)., N.H. (AP) -
December 7, 2013 (WPVI)teenager who disappeared nearly two months ago mailed
her mother a letter several weeks after she was last seen, law enforcement
officials said Friday <…..> Law enforcement officials said the letter,
which they called unprecedented in similar investigations, has given them hope,
though they still have "grave concerns" for her safety <…..>
Police asked people to be on the lookout for the dark-haired girl <…>
"We implore Abby that if she hears this, if she's able to see this,
contact us," she said. "We will do everything we can to reunite the
girl with her mother. (news)discovery of a mysterious blonde girl at a Roma
camp in Greece has spurred more than 10,000 phone calls and emails to the
charity trying to identify her <….>The girl, who was discovered in the
home of a couple with 13 other children, speaks only a Roma dialect and is
believed to be around four years old. The couple have been charged with
kidnapping and police say they have given at least five different accounts of
how the child came to be with them. [18]use of a/anindefinite article is also
used where the noun phrase does not refer to any specific individual:'m looking
for a millionaire, she says, but I don’t see any around.(conv)feel terrible, I
need a friend.millionaire and a friend are unspecific and mean 'any person of
that kind'.
« They required a driver, guide, and
translator for a young man who would be in Lutsk at the dawn of the month of
July…» [10; 17]
«It is near 50 kilometers from
Lutsk,” Father said. “He possesses a map and is sanguine of the coordi nates.
It should be simple.” » [10; 18]
«“Have you ever had a girlfriend?” I
asked the hero. “Have you?” “I am inquiring you.”» [10; 84]
«I’ve never eaten a picture.» [10;
10]
«I will never kiss a woman.» [10;
260]
«But once you get a girlfriend,
well, you know.” “I know very well.”» [10; 85]or generic use of a/anindefinite
article can also serve to classify an entity:brother is a doctor
(classifying)to refer generically to what is typical of any member of the class
as in:doctor is not better that his patient (generic)
« But I do not do these things
because we are a family…» (classifying) [10; 49]
« If you want to know why, it is
because Grandfather is Grandfather first and a driver second» [10; 75]
«He says that the bitch was named
for his favorite singer, who was Sammy Davis, Junior.” “A Jew,” the hero said.
“What?” “Sammy Davis, Junior was a Jew.”» [10;83]
«I was very flabbergasted by his
appearance. This is an American? I thought. And also, This is a Jew? He was
severely short» [10;68]
«When a Jew encounters a pin, he
asks: What does it remember like?» (generic) [10;212]
«he was a Gypsy. He was a Jew»
[10;256]
«An American in Ukraine is so
flaccid to recognize» [10;41]
« …by what you wrote about how
impossible it must have been for your grandmother to be a mother without a
husband» [10; 156]
«You are very hungry, yes?” “I’m a
vegetarian.” “I do not understand”» [10; 82]
4. Indefinite meaning with the
zero article
zero article, or, the meaningful
non-use of the article, expresses absolute generalization, abstraction of the
referent denoted by the noun. It renders the idea of the highest degree of
generalization and abstraction.a/an with singular countable nouns, the zero
article signals indefiniteness with uncountable nouns: We have tea on the table
guys, drink it. (conv) and plural countable nouns: We have books and we do not
read them. (conv)
«I don’t eat meat.” “Why not?” “I
just don’t.” »
«Do you eat veal?” “Oh, God.
Absolutely no veal.” “What about sausage?” “No sausage either.”»
«I suggested to the hero, “because
they do not have anything that is not meat.” “Don’t they have potatoes or
something?” he asked. “Do you have potatoes?” I asked the waitress» [10;
82].article phrases commonly express non-specific or generic reference. But
there are also some special uses of the zero article with singular countable
nouns, where otherwise we expect the or a/an to occur.as institutionsthey going
for dinner or something?
«After dinner at the restaurant, we
drove back to the hotel» [10; 84]as institutionsaccident happened in school.
(conv)
«Which meant they couldn’t get to
synagogue, of course» [10; 31]with unique referencea predicative noun phrase
names a unique role or job, either a zero article or the is used:Cameron
appoints Cheryl Gillan as Welsh Secretary (zero article)government has not
ruled out any options on airport expansion in south-east England, Transport
Secretary Patrick McLoughlin has said.Lewis, the Conservative MP for Great
Yarmouth, is to head a new committee to oversee reconstruction <…> ( with
article the) [19]was re-elected OPEC president in November.structureszero
article sometimes occurs in parallel constructions like X and Y or from X toY,
where X and Y are identical or contrasting nouns. Examples of this kind are
often fixed phrases like, eye to eye, face to face, from start to finish
etc.wants to travel from country to country.
«From Man You Came and to Man You
Shall Return…» [10; 26]
«and then one from waist to neck,
and fearing he would forget this one, he tied a string from ear to tooth to
scrotum to heel…» [10; 29]
«It flew from face to face, buzzing,
landing on long noses, going in and out of hairy ears» [10; 30]
«Father is a fat man, and Mother is
also. Father is a fat man, and Mother is also» [10; 17]
«He was the president (and treasurer
and secretary and only member) of the Committee for the Good and Fine
Arts…»[10; 59]broadly relates to communications betwee lawyer and
client.consider following examples that use the indefinite article:
«“What?” “I had heard it might be a
problem, but it wasn’t a problem.”»
«…he could never provide because the
bureaucrat was a man, and he was not a man»languagezero article can occur with
noun phrases in block language, that is abbreviated language used in newspaper
headlines, labels, lists, notices.hunt man with suitcase over Jayden Parkinson
‘murder’investigating the disappearance of teenager Jayden Parkinson are
searching for a man spotted pulling a suitcase through a field in the middle of
the night. [20] Headline uses the zero article for man and suitcase, which are
then mentioned in the news story as a man and a suitcase.Enters Spacesees
beauty of Yellowstone's largest metahpor hits ice-berg (headlines)
5. The definite article the
definite article expresses the
identification or individualization of the referent of the noun. The object
that the noun denotes is taken as concrete and individual, or definite.use of
theunknown entities have been introduced, they can be treated as «knоwn» and
named by the in later references. This use is clear in the following passage,
where the definite article has been introduced:12- year old boy got mad on his
parents Friday night because they refused to let him go fishing on the Colorado
River with relatives. So, while his parents were distracted during a barbecue
with eight adult friends, he slipped away from his sister and three brothers,
snatched the keys to a Volkswagen Beetle and drove off in one of his parent's
four cars,<…..> El Cajon police sent teletype descriptions of the curly
haired , 90-pound sixth-grader to law enforcement agencies throughout Southern
California and the Arizona border area. The boy was found unharmed - but scared
and sleepy (news)is what is called anaphora: the phrase with the refers back to
a previously mentioned item.anaphoric use of theindirect anaphora, the earlier
noun is not repeated, but an associated noun is used with the:
«Not with standing that we had a
deranged bitch in the car, who made a proclivity of throwing her body against
the windows…» [10; 42]
«The station was not ordinary,
because there were blue and yellow papers from the ceiling…» [10; 44]know that
cars have windows, so after the car has been mentioned, the windows can be
treated as known.of the with synonyms, indirect anaphora involves the use of a differenr
noun reffering to the same thing or person.example again is the shift from a
12-year-old boy to the curly haired, 90-pound sixth-grader.
«“Where’s dog going to be?” the hero
inquired I can’t help it.”
“The bitch and the Jew will share
the back seat. It is vast enough for both of them.”» [10; 47]saw his red Toyota
near the house. The vehicle was shining.know that Toyota is a car, a vehicle
though, so the vehicle is treated as known.use of theis known as the opposite
of anaphora. In this case the definite reference is established by something
following later in the text, especially some modifier of the noun.
«It was invented in 1969. My friend
Gregory knows a friend of the nephew [of the person who invented]”»
«I have girdled in the envelope the
items you inquired, not withholding postcards of Lutsk, the census ledgers of
the six villages from before the war, and the photographs that you had me keep
for cautious purposes.»the 1st example the defining postmodifiers is an
of-pharse, in the 2nd is relative clause.use of theoften occurs because an
entity is known from the situation. It can be the immediate situation in which
conversation takes place, or the wider situation, the world, or even the
universe.can see someone at the door ( conv, immediate situation)'ve been doing
a lot of thinking and the thing is…I love you.you take a red glass from the
table?you move the vase? I cant see anything., some uses of article the are
idiomatic , as part of a fixed phrase: in the main, by the way, at the end, at
the end of the day etc.
Conclusion
problem of article determination has
given rise to much controversy; there is much dispute about the status of the
article itself and the status of its combination with the noun.category of
article determination shows, or, determines the relations of the referent of
the noun to the other referents of the same class. The article is a determiner,
a unit which determines a noun, but unlike other determiners (the lexical means
of determination: this, that, some, any, very etc.), it is so general, that it
has become a grammatical means of determination in modern English.usages of the
definite article were described and the conclusion can be made concerning the
definite article usage tendencies in Modern English:
situational usage of article the is
common only in conversation, where participants rely on the context that they
share with listeners;
anaphoric the is common in all
registers (appendix 1);
cataphoric the is heavily
concentrated in non-fiction writing; it is associated with complex noun
phrases.explains why there are many problems connected with article usage in
English. Patterns mentioned above can bring the clearness to this issue,
stating that they are widely used in different contexts while different
circumstances.
Resume
article noun cataphoric
Тема курсової
роботи:
«Теоретичний
та
практичний
аспекти
вивчення
артикля
в
сучасній
англійській
мові».
Актуальність
даної теми зумовлена полемікою проблеми вживання артиклів в англійській мові.
Проблема функції артиклів- детермінації являється причиною дискуту в
лінгвістичній науці, широко дискутується статус самого артикля, і статус його
поєднання з іменником.
Об'єктом даної роботи є вживання артиклів (a/an,
the, zero
article) в англійській
мові на прикладах роману Джонатана Фоєра « Everything
is illuminated».
Мета роботи визначить місце артикля в
лінгвістичній науці, разом з його основною функцією детермінанта іменника,
спираючись на головні тенденції вживання артикля, зокрема в романі « Everything
is illuminated».
Завданням виконаної курсової робити було
виокремити основні тенденції в вживанні артиклів англійської мови, більшість з
яких не може бути обґрунтована загальними правилами вживання артиклів.
List of references
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