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24. The number of moods in Modern English.
The grammatical category of mood has the reputation
of being one of the most controversial categories. Mood is traditionally defined as a
grammatical category which expresses the
relation of the action to reality as stated by the speaker. As follows from the
definition mood seems to be the only morphological category which includes the
category of the speaker in its definition. It means that it is one of the most
speaker-oriented categories. The forms of the moods serve the needs of the
speaker to present the action as real, unreal (contradicting the state of things in reality) or hypothetical.
The category of mood presents the interpretation
of the action by the speaker from the point of view of its relation to reality. Scholars differ greatly in
the understanding of this category, its scope and, consequently, in the number of grammatical forms of the mood they
find in English. This number-
varies from two (in Barkhudarov's interpretation) to sixteeen (in
Deutchbein's interpretation). In our
interpretation and classification of moods we shall follow the classification system of moods presented by
Smirnitsky. It appears to be the most consistent because it is
meaning-oriented and it also takes into consideration the difference between
an analytical form and a free syntactic combination. His system of moods
includes six moods: the Indicative, the Imperative, Subjunctive I,
Subjunctive II, the Conditional Mood and the Suppositional mood. The Indicative
mood presents the action as real from the speaker's point of view. It is
the most frequently used type of mood and it has the greatest number of
forms. The forms of the Indicative mood are used in two communicative types of sentences: declarative
and interrogative. Suppositional
mood specializes in the expression of hypothetical actions. The
comparison of such sentences as "If he turns up tell him to -wait for
me" and "Should he turn up tell him to wait for me" shows that both the verbal forms present the action as hypothetical but
differ in the degree of certainty which is higher in the case of Present Indefinite Indicative. The Imperative
mood is used to express inducement(побуждение,
стимул) to action, which means that the speaker considers the action as
desirable. The use of the
Imperative mood is restricted to only one communicative type of
sentences - imperative sentences. The Conditional mood is built with
the help of the auxiliary verbs should/would and the Infinitive of the
notional verb. As in the case of Subjunctive II, the non-perfect and perfect
forms of the Infinitive have a temporal
meaning rather than the meaning of priority. The Conditional mood expresses
an unreal action which is the consequence of an unreal condition.
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27.
Various interpretations of the continuous forms.
3
stages can be distinguished in the evolution of views on the continuous.
1st
approach – of traditional grammar. It places the continuous
forms among the tense forms of the verb. That’s why – “continuous tenses”
=> “the tense view of the continuous” and the meaning of the
continuous was defined as that of simultaneity with some other action. Those
who oppose this point of view analyze the form of the perfect cont. They
point out that perfect is quite alien to simultaneity, it expresses
priority but as the continuous is usually used with perf. It cannot
express simultaneity, it expresses only aspectuality – an action in
progress.
2nd approach
was put forward by prof. Ivanova – she says the continuous renders a
blend of temporal and aspective meanings => “the tense-aspect blend
view”. The merits: Иванова pointed out the aspective meaning of the cont. &
showed the actual connection of aspect & tense in the semantics of the
verb.
3rd
approach – the oppositional theory was applied by linguists Смирницкий,
Ярцева, Ильиш, Бархударов – if we analyze it in terms of oppositional theory
we should note the opposition between continuous and non-continuous forms.
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Билет 36 theoretical and practical diffic. of the study of
the articles
The
article is a determiner of the noun.it-s function is to define the object or
phenomenon in the most general way.The peculisrity of the art, is that in the
absence of other determiners.The use of the art.With the noun is
obligatory.One of the main theoretical difficulties of the study of the
art.its status in the system of morphology/The problem is wheather the art is
a separate word.That’s the lexical unity,one of the noun determiners.the
meaning of the articles:The defin.article expr the indification or
individualization of the noun.The use of this art shows that the object is
taken in it’s concrete individual quality.The art can be replaced by a
demonstrative pronoun(look at the tree=look at this tree).The indef art
refers the object to a certain clas of similar objects(we saw a house=we saw
a certain house).The absence of the art is also a disputable point.Some
grammarians single out the so called zero article.Thus saying that there are
3 articles.In generaldiff uses of nouns without an art from the semantic
point of view should bedividedinto 2 types:1)the art.is deliberately ommited
out of stylistic considerations: in titles and headlines,various notices,in
telegraphic speech(Coference starts Monday). In this cases the omitted
articles can be easily restored.2)cases of traditionally fixedabsense of the
art a)prepositions phrases(to bed) b)verbalphrases (to take place)
c)repletion groups (day by day) d)with uncountable nouns(what awful
weather).the choice of the art is closely connected with 2 types of
attribute. The limiting attribute requires the defin art. The descriptive
attribute requires indefinite art or the absence of the art with uncountable
nouns and nouns in the plur.
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29. The category of case of English nouns
It’s
a form of a noun showing the relations of that noun to other words in the
sent. It helps to define the syntactic function of the N. in the sent. It’s a
morphological category in English, because it’s represented by dif. w-forms
of one and the same noun. Most linguists regard it as such & agree that
the Eng. noun has 2 distinct cases, because it has 2 distinct form cases.
The genitive case- is
built up by the opposition of 2 forms (the com.case & the genet.case).
The form of the gen. case is marked. The formal marker is the case morpheme
is represented by a number of phonol. conditioned allomorphs [s, z, iz]. It’s
characterized by a number of points limit in its use in the lang. Its mainly
applied to names of human beings, but it can be used with some inanimate
nouns: esp. denoting time & space relations (yesterday’s paper) and some
adverbs…
The common case- this
form is unmarked & is represented by a zero morpheme. In plural nouns the
case morpheme & the number morpheme are very often expressed by one &
the same morpheme “ ‘ “: boys’ toys. In nouns that build up the plural
with the help of other means but “s” ( children, women) the case morpheme is
expressed separately by the suffix ‘s which follows the morpheme of
number.The mean-g of the common case is very broad & extensive, it simply
shows that this or that N is non-genetive. It can be used in any syntactic
positions in the sent. The use of nouns in the common case is very frequent
(98%).
The method of transformational analysis: the mean-g of gen.case:
1)
possessive (John’s car, the
bird’s nest) = John has a car
2)
the subjective genitive (doctor’s
advice, my husband’s arrival). Can be transformed: the doctor adviced…- the
doer/subject of the action
3)
the objective mean-g (John’s
punishment, surprise) 2 ways of transformation: John was punished, smb
surprised John- the sufferer of the action.
4)
adverbial genitive (2 hours’
work)
5)
genitive of destination (men’s
shoes)
The number of cases in Modern English: there are dif. views on this problem. Historically
there was one common case system for both nouns & personal pronouns in
old English. Some scholars try to introduce a 3 case system. According to
them nouns & personal pronouns have nominative case. Other
scholars(J.Curme): find 4 cases –nominative, genitive, dative, accusative.
Prof. Voroncova thinks that the category of case doesn’t exist in English
because it’s not a case inflection(окончания).
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