Slang as a part of spoken English

Slang as a part of spoken English

Introduction

countries and continents are becoming closer and closer. They are connected with transport routes, radio and satellite broadcasting and the Internet. The attitude towards foreign languages has changed too. The knowledge of a foreign language is now not only a part of a good education, but a necessity.doubt, English has already won a world status. It is the most widespread language in the world. For approximately 400 million people English is a native language. More than 200 million people speak English as a second language. It is learned in all countries as a language of world communication. It has become a world language in politics, science, business and culture. No other language is as popular in information technology, advertising and popular music. It is certain that English is accepted everywhere around the world.well-educated person should know at least one foreign language. The Latin proverb says: Quo linguis calet, tot hominess valet, which means As many languages a person knows, as many people he is worth. Each country, each culture and each language has something unique to offer. Some ideas can be expressed only in a foreign language. It also helps one to understand ones own language. Goethe said: A man, who does not know any foreign language, does not know his native one either. [1; с 12]is a language that has a lot of different variants. Each of these variants has special and unique peculiarities in vocabulary, grammar and phonetics. That is why people, whose native language is English but who live in different countries do not always easily understand each other. So it is obvious and apparent that it is almost impossible for a non-native speaker to perform a perfect communication. But why? Answering the question it should be mentioned that phonetic peculiarities in speech of a speaker and his rate of speaking are very important in the process of comprehension. But, however, vocabulary that predetermines the meaning of the utterance is of great importance too. But what is going on when we hear very familiar words and notions but cannot put them together to make sense? The answer is found in the simple and seemingly familiar notion SLANG (more detailed information about slang is found in the Chapter I). Slang makes 1/3 part of the spoken language but in spite of this fact most teachers and specialists in methodology ignore slang, although a lot of words and expressions belonging to slang are gradually becoming normal. [2; с 43]language is quite different from literary and written standards. Language should be a means of communication not a barrier. Using slang comparatively simplifies communication with native speakers. It is even urgent to know slang, because nowadays a lot of people from our country leave for English-speaking countries as international students and trainees. That is why slang should also be learned and taught, for it is also an inseparable part of Spoken English.the above the following theme of this research work is singled out: Slang as a part of Spoken English. The theme of the investigation is considered to be vital because today people need to contact with native speakers more than ever and besides a formal language it is impossible to avoid an informal one. Thus slang is relevant here. The aim of this paper is studying the importance of knowledge of slang. [3; с 1]accordance with the aim the following hypothesis is suggested:knowledge of slang is a very important component in the development of linguistic competence, for it simplifies communication in real-life situations and comprehension of authentic movies and literary works.competence is a system of knowledge of a language, its rules in speech functioning and ability with this system to understand ones thoughts and to express ones own ideas in oral and written form.object of the investigation is Spoken English and the subject is slang.practical significance of this research consists in the fact that it suggests practical examples and situations where slang can be revealed and how it can be applied. The paper contains the appendix displaying slang vocabulary, which includes the most popular slang words and expressions. This research also contributes to teaching EFL: it suggests teaching slang in schools, for it also promotes the development of ones linguistic competence.aim of this paper predetermines certain tasks, namely:

·Studying and systematizing the theoretical material on the topic;

·Defining the notion slang;

·Tracing the origin and sources of slang;

·Singling out the classification of slang, its forms and characteristics;

·Analyzing the use of slang;

·Describing the results of the investigation.

Accordingly the following methods are suggested:

·Analysis of the theoretical material;

·Content-analysis;

·Study of literary works;

·Analysis of the American movies;

·Analysis of the songs;

·Method of investigation.

1. Spoken English and Slang. Origins, sources and diffusion of slang

as there is formal and informal dress, so there is formal and informal speech. Consequently, the social context, in which the conversation is taking place determines both the mode of dress and the modes of speech. When placed in different situations, people instinctively choose different kind of words and structures to express their thoughts. That means that the actual situation of the communication has evolved to varieties of language- spoken and written.stability of a word for each particular situation depends on its stylistic characteristics, or, in other words, on the functional style it represents. I.V. Arnold defines functional style as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication. By the sphere of communication linguists mean the circumstances attending the process of speech in each particular case: professional communication, a lecture, an informal talk, a formal letter, an intimate letter, a speech in court, etc. All these situations can be roughly classified into 2 types: formal (a lecture, an official letter, a speech in court) and informal (an informal talk, an intimate letter). [4; с 3]living language is simply one set of words which can be used the same way in all situations. The nature of language is such that there are a lot of different ways to arrange its elements. What this means is that there are many ways to say the same thing, depending on where a speaker is, who he is talking to, and how he feels. One is all advanced enough in his study of English to realize that he does not talk to a roommate the same way he would talk to his roommates mother. One of the main factors which determine which words and structures are appropriate is the degree of formality of the situation in which one is using the language.vocabulary belongs to the Spoken language and is used in ones immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. One uses the spoken language, i.e. informal speech, when at home or when feeling at home. There are many situations in everyday life where Informal English is allowed, even preferred. Some examples include: while playing sports, while studying with friends, while watching a sport event, with close family members, with friends while shopping or hanging out, at work (depending on the job), on a date, at the movies, while listening to popular music, in email, in notes, on the phone with friends.spoken language has a considerable advantage over the written one, in that the human voice comes in play. This is a powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all kinds of gestures, which, together with the intonation give additional information. The spoken language by its very nature is spontaneous, momentary, fleeting. It vanishes after having fulfilled its purpose, which is to communicate a thought, no matter whether it is trivial or really important. The idea remains, the language dissolves in it.spoken variety differs from the written language (that is, in its written presentation) phonetically, morphologically and syntactically. But the most striking difference between the spoken and the written language is, however, in the vocabulary used. Colloquial expressions and slang are an essential part of spoken English. There is hardly a person who does not make use of them upon occasion. Everyone from teenagers to scientists use it. All countries and periods of history have had slang. It reflects the peculiarities of contemporary daily life in a unique way. All types of semantic changes can be illustrated from that part of the vocabulary.has already been said about slang but what is it? There are different opinions of what slang is. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines it as:

non-standard vocabulary composed of words or senses characterized primarily by connotations of extreme informality and usually by a currency not limited to a particular region. It is composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties. [5; с 51]definition of the Oxford Dictionary of 1911 is very different:

…language of a high colloquial type, below the level of standard educated speech and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.to the American poet Carl Sandburg slang is the language which takes off its coat, spits on its hands and goes to work. Slang has also been characterized as an ever-changing set of colloquial words and phrases generally considered distinct from and socially lower that the standard language. It occurs in all languages, and the existence of this part of the vocabulary is probably as old as the language itself. [6; с 11]can also be defined as a peculiar kind of vagabond language, always hanging on the outskirts of legitimate speech, but continually straying or forcing its way into the most respectable company.definitions vary, and they clearly show different attitudes to slang. But there is one thing that is the same in all of these definitions. They characterize slang as the language lower than standard educated speech. Slang is considered to be vulgar and rude, as the language of lower social classes. That is right; slang belongs to so-called vulgar speech. [7; с 2]is used by all kinds of groups of people who share situations or interests. The group which uses these words is always in minority, and often uses slang to set its members apart or make it difficult for ordinary people to understand them. Slang fulfills at least two different functions, depending on whose point of view. For the groups that use slang, it is a way to express themselves in an individual way, and sometimes to keep secrets from being known by others. But foe the society in general and the development of the language, slang performs another role. For the language slang is like a linguistic laboratory, where new words and forms can be tested out, applied to a variety of situations, and then either abandoned or incorporated into the regular language. It is like a trial period for new words. If they allow people to say something that cannot be said using traditional language, and a majority of people accept them, then these words and expressions join their regular language. [8; с 32]slang belongs to the spoken part of the language, not all conversational expressions are slang. For example, it is hard to imagine such expressions as shut up (for be quiet) in a book (except in a dialog), but it is not slang. Slang is often confused with jargon, but they are quite different. Jargon is itself a loaded word. It is obscure and pretentious language marked by a roundabout way of expression and use of long words. Jargon is said to be a bad use of language, something to be avoided at all costs.slang is treated as the language of the underworld, but it is a mistake. Only a part of slang vocabulary originates from the underworld. The main sources of slang change from period to period. Yet many slang words arise from the groups that have nothing to do with the underworld, such as college students, sport fans, or enlisted personnel in the military. It is often the usage of the young people and those who see themselves as distinct from the rest of society. Vocabulary, as always, has been the index of change. There are many differences between the slang of previous years and the slang of nowadays. If one characterizes slang in two words, the first would be non-standard and the second is changing. Slang words fall out of use more quickly than words of standard language. Slang is constantly renewed and is always modern. Such slang items like vamoose, skedaddle, beat it, scram, buzz off all had their periods of popularity in the 20th century. They express quite the same idea of getting away, being used in imperative form. [9; с 11]though mostly slang is regarded from the lexical point of view as a particular vocabulary typical of Spoken English, it is necessary to say that slang expressions can be viewed phonetically, orthographically and grammatically. These can be standard words applied with some phonetic, orthographic or grammatical alterations, what brings to the utterance some slangy coloring and freshness. The freshness of slang is appealing. It stems from an instinctive desire for novelty of expression. We use it just as we use a nickname instead of the real name of a person. Slang arises due to our propensity for replacing habitual old denominations by original expressive ones. Slang words are used because they are highly emotive and expressive. H. Wentworth and S. Flexner in their Dictionary of American Slang write:

Sometimes slang is used to escape the dull formality of standard words, to suggest an escape from the established routine of everyday life. When slang is used, our life seems a little fresher and a little more personal. Also, as at all levels of speech, slang is sometimes used for the pure joy of making noise. The sheer newness and informality of certain slang words produce pleasure..K. Chesterton, a famous English writer says: All slang is metaphor, and all metaphor is poetry… Speaking about the authors words All slang is metaphor, it is a true observation, though the second part of the statement all metaphor is poetry is difficult to accept, especially if one considers the following examples mug (for face), saucers or blinkers (for eyes), trap (for mouth), dogs (for feet). All these meanings are certainly based on metaphor, yet they strike one as singularly unpoetical. [10; с 18]or most slang words are current words whose meanings have been metaphorically shifted. Each slang metaphor is rooted in a joke, but not in a kind of amusing joke. This is the criterion for distinguishing slang from colloquialisms: most slang words are metaphors and jocular, often with a mocking, coarse and cynical coloring. This is one of the common objections against slang: a person using a lot of slang seems to be sneering and jeering at everything under the sun.is regarded as the phenomenon of colloquial speech and therefore stands above all the laws of grammar. Though it is regarded by some purists as a language that stands below standard English, it is highly praised nowadays as vivid, more flexible, more picturesque, richer in vocabulary and so on. Unwittingly one arrives at the idea that slang, as used by English or Americans, is a universal term for any word or phrase which, though not yet recognized as a fact of standard English, has won general recognition as a fresh innovation. [11; с 67]do people use slang? For a number of reasons. To be picturesque, arresting, striking and, above all, different from others. To avoid the tedium of outmoded common words. To demonstrate ones spiritual independence and daring. To sound modern and up-to-date.s colorful and humorous quality makes it catching, so that a considerable part of slang may become accepted by nearly all the groups of speakers.linguist Khaya-Kava writes: Slang is the poetry of every-day life, he considerers slang a sign of life and development of a language. But in opposition to this opinion slang is said to be a negative phenomenon overloading the language. That is why many slang words are used to insult. For example, a person considered inferior or unpleasant can be described by such words as creep, drip. fink, jerk and turkey. Some insulting slang words refer to certain ethnic, racial and religious groups. Slang is also used to criticize or poke fun at established institutions. That is why many people disapprove of slang. They consider it inferior language and accuse those who use it of careless and lazy thinking. Some believe the use of slang limits a persons vocabulary and even weakens the standard language itself.with the development of society and language many words and expressions, which earlier belonged to slang and were not to be used in literary norms of the language, tend to become generally accepted lexical units. Thus, one is not even aware, like some native speakers that some words used to belong to a slang group before. For example: bones for dice was used by Chaucer in the 14th century, and is still slang now. It is not typical and may be called unique. Usually when slang items stay in the general language, they become standard vocabulary and enjoy full rights as members of the language. American linguist M. Pan said: It is useless to try to look down on words used in slums or in this or that professional group. Tomorrow these very words will be accepted by all users of the language and they will inevitably penetrate the vocabulary. That is why to fully understand slang one must remember that a words use, popularity, and acceptability can change. Words can change in social level, moving in any direction. Language is dynamic, and at any given time, hundreds and perhaps thousands, of words and expressions are in the process of changing from one level to another, of becoming more acceptable or less acceptable, of becoming more popular or less popular. [12; с 5]and age peculiarities of speakers, their social status and various differences concerning their culture, background and education enormously influence o language. Thus, one and the same person may speak different sublanguages (forms of a language: literary, colloquial, scientific etc.) and use them according to the situation. So during the social intercourse a person may play different social roles and come into different relations (employer- employee, father-son, teacher- student). Changing situations presupposes changing roles, which characterizes relations between communicants, and this means choosing an appropriate sublanguage, and slang can also be used as a sublanguage. [3; с 23]it has been mentioned above, slang may become legal, but there is the reverse side. A lot of standard words find their ways into slang. Sometimes it is very difficult to define the precise quality that makes an expression slang. It is often not in the word itself, but in the sense in which it is used. When speaking of soldiers who put down a rebellion, put down is proper enough. But it is slang when one speaks of a remark which puts someone down.fact, most slang words are homonyms of standard words and only sometimes differ in spelling and pronunciation. Slang items usually arise by the same means - by recycling words and parts of words which are already in the language. Limitless opportunities are allowed by affixation. Slang frequently uses abbreviated words and phrases like VJ from video jockey and Sup from whats up? Unlike the general vocabulary, English slang has not borrowed from foreign languages a lot, although it does borrow from dialects of ethnic minorities. Words can change their fluid status and cross the borders of different types of speech. What is slang today may have been in a good use once or may be accepted in the standard speech tomorrow. It is hard to define where the vulgar speech ends and the spoken language begins. Thousands of words and expressions are in the process of changing from one level to another at any given time. Some interchange between one type and the next is constantly going on. So slang can be regarded as a lexical supplement of the language, because all neologisms first find their life in colloquial expressions and only then develop into literary speech. [13; с 2]slang is becoming more and more popular. In our high speed epoch language is simplifying. Short and abbreviated words are preferred to long and complicated ones. And perhaps that is why slang is used. Because of its brevity, capacity and exactness it makes conversation easier. It can hardly be denied that some slang expressions express an idea that would be difficult to convey by other means. There is the paradox of slang: people look down on it, but they cannot avoid using it. Slang is vivid and natural in speech. It is impossible to shut eyes to the prominent role which it plays in the language.. It is a part of the language and cannot be treated as non-existent.

The origin of the word SLANG itself is unknown. Its resemblance in sound and figurative meaning to the noun and verb sling and the occurrence of apparently the same root in Scandinavian expressions referring to language, suggest that the term slang is development of a Germanic root from which the current English sling is derived. Another conjecture is that slang has been formed by shortening from genitive phrases like beggars language or rogues language, in which the genitive language and then the final syllable is lost.tends to originate in subcultures within a society. Occupational groups such as loggers, police, medical professionals and computer specialists are prominent originators of slang. Other groups creating slang include the armed forces, teenagers, racial minorities, ghetto residents, labor unions, broadcasters, sport groups, drug addicts and even religious denominations. Slang expressions often embody attitudes and values of group members.may thus contribute to a sense of group identity and may convey to the listener information about the speakers background. Before an apt expression becomes slang, however, it must be widely adopted by members of the subculture. If the subculture has enough contact with the mainstream culture, its figures of speech becomes slang expressions known to the whole society. For example: cat (sport), cool (aloof, stylish), Mr. Charley (a white man), the man (the law), and uncle Tom (a meek black) all originated in the predominantly black Harlem district of New York City and have traveled far since their inception. Slang is thus generally not tied to any geographic region within a country. A slang expression may suddenly become widely used. It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its original slang meaning (bus from omnibus) or with alerted meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual connotation). Some expressions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for alcoholic beverage). In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have speeded up the circulation of slang items. Changing social circumstances may stimulate the spread of slang. Drug-related expressions such as pot and marijuana were virtually a secret jargon in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth and in the 1970s and 80s they were widely known. [14; с 48]subcultures tend to draw words and phrases from the contiguous language and give these established terms new and special meanings; some borrowings from foreign languages, including the American Indian tongues, are traditional. The more learned occupations or professions like medicine, law, psychology, sociology, engineering and electronics tend to create true neologisms, often based on Greek or Latin roots, but these are not major sources of slang though nurses and medical students adapt some medical terminology to their slang, and air force personnel and some other branches of the armed service borrow freely from engineering and electronics.subcultures show specialized linguistic phenomena that depend on the nature of the groups and their relation to each other and to the dominant culture. The shock value of slang stems largely from the verbal transfer of the values of a subculture to diametrically opposed values in the dominant culture. Names such as fuzz, pig, fink, bull and dick for policemen were not created by officers of the law. The humorous dickless tracy, however, meaning a policewoman, was coined by male policemen.groups are legion and there is enough social and linguistic hostility to maintain group solidarity. Terms like scab, strike-breaker, company-man and goon were highly charged words in the era in which labor began to organize in the United States; they are not used lightly even today, though they have been taken into the standard language. [15; с. 21]culture and its slang are the main source of new words in the language. They give it an opportunity to change and develop. Teenage culture uses a lot of slang expressions, which quickly became popular among older people, too. Teenage slang has existed for a long time. Natural and free, slang aspires to leave this dull and boring world of adults. It results from a wish for change, for creating a new world. Teenage slang is especially sympathetic to all kinds of neologisms. Such new words are constantly appearing and are connected with new inventions, mainly with computer technology. It can be said that the major part of new words in the recent ten years has started with two groups of people - computer scientists and users, and teenagers. Computer technologies have already entered our lives. The majority of people have computers at home; computer technology is studied at schools. It highly possible that developing special computer slang will be the next step towards natural communication with the PCs. [16; с 4]addition to occupational, professional and teenage groups, there are many other types of subcultures that supply slang. These include sexual deviants, narcotic addicts, institutional populations, agricultural sub-societies, political organizations, Gypsies and sport groups of many varieties of professional criminals who migrated to the New World since the 16th century.lot of words and expressions have interesting stories. Many of them are concerned with different historical events. So the colloquial expression cock and bull story (used to describe untrue or highly exaggerated information) has its origins in pub names. A century ago there was a fire in a London pub called The Cock. Its guests left it in panic and were given shelter at a nearby inn called The Bull. The guests told exaggerated stories of their escape from the fire. These stories became known as cock-and-bull stories.an individual applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule or contempt, often with sharp wit, he may be creating slang, but the new expression will perish unless others pick it up. If the speaker is a member of a group that finds its creation projects the emotional reaction of its members toward an idea, person, or social institution, the expression will gain currency according to the unanimity of attitude within the group. A new slang term is usually widely used in a subculture before it appears in the dominant culture. Thus slang, e.g. sucker, shave-tail, jerk- express the attitudes, not always derogatory, of the group or class toward the values of the group, satirizing or burlesquing its own values, behavior, and attitudes; e.g., shotgun wedding, cake eater, grease spoon. Slang, then, is produced largely by social forces rather than by an individual speaker or writer who creates and establishes a word in the language. This is one reason why it is difficult to determine the origin of slang items.slang diffuses by word of mouth, and so the paths of many expressions are difficult to trace. A term like snafu, its shocking power softened with the explanation situation normal, all fouled up, worked its way gradually from the military in the World War II by word of mouth (because the media largely shunned it) into respectable circles. Today, however, radio, television and the Internet may introduce and spread a lively new word already used by an in-group into millions of people instant currency and popularity. For example, the term uptight was first used largely by criminal narcotic addicts to indicate the onset of withdrawal distress when drugs are denied. Later, because of intense journalistic interest in the drug scene, it became widely used in the dominant culture to mean anxiety or tension unrelated to drug use. It kept its form but changed its meaning slightly. [17; с 6]all slang expressions die out soon after they become widely used. For example, crazy (wonderful) had a short period of popularity in the 1950s. On the other hand, some slang terms last so long and become so widely used that they are considered colloquialisms. Examples include belly laugh (hearty laughter) and half-baked (not fully worked out). A few slang expressions become part of the standard language. Hairdo was introduced in the 1920s as a slang term for coiffure and became a standard word in less than 20 years. The words hoax and strenuous, which also began as slang, took longer to be accepted. Some slang words have been used for hundreds of years without reaching the status of colloquialisms or standard words. For example, grub (food dates back to the 1600s, and lousy (bad) dates back to the 1700s. However, both of these words are considered slang, not part of the standard vocabulary.it has been mentioned, in the case of uptight the slang expression has kept its form but changed its meaning. Some terms may change their form or both form and meaning, like one for the book (anything unusual or unbearable). Sportswriters in the US borrowed this term in about 1920 from the language of bookmakers, who lined up at racetracks in the morning (the morning line is still figuratively used on every sports page) to take some bets on the afternoon races. Newly arrived bookmakers went to the end of the line, and any bettor requesting unusually long adds was motioned down the line with the phrase: Thats one for the end book. The general public dropped the end as meaningless, but old-time gamblers still retain it. Slang spreads by many other channels, such as popular songs, which are often rich in double entendre.subcultures are structurally tight, little of their language leaks out. Thus the Mafia, in more than a half-century of powerful criminal activity in America, has contributed little slang. When subcultures weaken, contacts with the dominant culture multiply, diffusion occurs, and their language appears widely as slang. Criminal narcotic addicts, for example, had a tight subculture and a highly secret argot in the 1940s; now middle-class teenagers, even those with no real knowledge of drugs, use their terms freely.recap everything above it should be reminded that there are two types of attitude toward slang:

) Slang is believed to be stupid and vulgar because it occurs in informal conversation, accompanied by grammatical errors;

) The reasonable use of slang promotes lively speaking it keeps the language fresh and alive.can be regarded not only from the lexical point of view as a particular vocabulary typical of Spoken English; it can be viewed phonetically, orthographically and grammatically. These can be standard words applied with some phonetic, orthographic or grammatical alterations, what brings to the utterance some slangy coloring and freshness. [18; с 4]is also obvious that slang is said to have originated mostly in subcultures of occupational and professional groups. Teenagers, criminals and uneducated people also play a great role in creating and maintaining slang. Since slang is a part of spoken English, it diffuses verbally, and not only via real communication but also via television and even the Internetslang should be learned in order to simplify communication, because the spoken language differs from literary standards. It should be regarded as a prolific source of new word forms feeding the general vocabulary.

1.1Classification of slang. Forms of slang. Characteristics of slang

When systematizing the material on slang one may come to a controversial problem: the problem is that there are two classifications identifying the place of slang.

)According to M.M Makovsky slang belongs to the so-called social dialects.dialects are variants of a language, which are used by certain social groups.slang social dialects comprise: jargon, cant and argot. Thus, these social sublanguages, according to this classification, should be regarded as independent.this paper employs such terms as jargon, cant and argot, it is necessary to define these concepts:comprises the restricted, NON-technical words and expressions of any particular group, as an occupational, age, ethnic or special-interest group.is defined as the restricted technical or shoptalk words and expressions of any particular group, as trade, scientific, artistic, criminal, student or other group.is a special vocabulary used by a peculiar social group, especially by the so-called underworld. Its main point is to be unintelligible to outsiders. [19; с 82]is defined as false or insincere language and refers to the language used by thieves and beggars of the underworld.linguists reserve the term jargon for technical language applied to colorful occupational expressions.combines words either non-terminological, unofficial substitutes for professional terms (professionalisms), or official terms misused deliberately to express disrespect.is a secret lingo of the underworld - of thieves and robbers.- substandard, expressive and emotive vocabulary used by limited group of people, united either professionally or socially.general slang is more casual and acceptable to outsiders than jargon. Slang and cant are more vivid than jargon.

)According to I.V. Arnold and N.V. Krupnov slang is subdivided into general and special slang.slang includes words that are not specific for any social or professional group. Special slang is peculiar for some group: teenager slang, university slang, military slang, criminal slang and so on., second group is heterogeneous. Some authors, A.D. Schweizer for instance, consider cant, jargon and argot to belong here. It seems, however, more logical to differentiate general slang and special slang. The essential difference between then results from the fact that the first has an expressive function, whereas the second is primarily concerned with secrecy. Words of general slang are clearly motivated, e.g. cradle-snatcher- and old man who marries a much younger woman; window-shopping- feasting ones eyes on goods displayed in the shops without buying anything. Words of special slang on the contrary do not show their motivation, e.g. rap (kill), shin (knife), book (a life sentence).are cases, of course, when words originated as special slang later on pass on into general slang. The borderlines are not always sharp and distinct. For example, the expression be on the beam was first used by pilots about the beam of the radio beacon indicating the proper course for the aircraft to follow. Then figuratively be on the beam came to mean to be right, whereas be off the beam came to mean to be wrong or to be at a loss.the theme of this paper is slang as a part of Spoken English, it is already obvious that people use slang in speaking than in writing, and mostly with friends than with strangers. Slang thus reminds of colloquialisms, which are expressions used in everyday conversation but not considered appropriate for formal speech or writing.makes colloquialisms and slang different? Both of them are used in Spoken English and both of them are used in informal speech. But where is the difference? The first characteristic feature consists in emotional coloring of slang and colloquialisms. Here slang possesses a higher degree of emotional coloring. In dictionaries these two concepts are graphically marked as sl. and coll.

Forms of slang are created by the same processes that affect ordinary speech. Expressions take form as metaphors, similes and other figures of speech (dead as a doornail). Words may acquire new meanings (cool, cat). A narrow meaning may become generalized (fink, originally a strikebreaker, later a betrayer or disappointer) or vice-versa.there are seven chief forms of slang, each created by different processes. These forms are

) old words used in new ways;

) shortened or lengthened words;

) figures of speech;

) acronyms;

) coinages;

) blends;

7) rhyming slang.words used in new ways. Most slang expressions are simply new uses for old words or phrases. The flap (excitement) about air pollution is slang, but the flap (hinged section) of an airplane wing is not slang. To rip off (steal) a camera is slang, but to rip off the top of a box is Standard English.or lengthened words. The process creating a new word by dropping one or more syllables from a longer word is called clipping. Clipping produces many slang terms, including phiz (face) which is short for physiognomy; psycho, short for psychopath; and rep, short for reputation.type of shortened word is back-formation. Most slang back-formations are verbs and were formed by dropping the ending from a noun. Examples of such verbs include burgle (to steal), from burglar; letch (to lust), from lecher and nuke (to attack with nuclear weapons), from nuclear.the reverse process, a new word may be created by adding an ending to an existing one. Slang words created by this process include payola (graft), from pay; and slugfest (fight), from slug (to hit).of speech are expressions in which words are used in unusual ways. One of the most common slang figures of speech is metaphor, an implied comparison between two different things. For example, a slang metaphor bean pole describes a thin person.type of slang figure of speech is metonymy, which substitutes a quality of something for the thing itself. Examples of metonymy include long green (paper currency) and skirt (woman).are words formed from the first letters or syllables of the words in a phrase. The form of slang includes D.J. or deejay, from disc jockey; and kidvid (childrens television programs), from kid video).are newly invented words or phrases. Slang coinages include humongous (huge), moola (money, palooka (inferior athlete) and zit (pimple).are new words created by joining the first part of one word to the second part of another one. Examples of slang blends are: gyrene (United States marine), from G.I. Marine; and sexploitation (commercial exploitation of peoples interests in sex).slang includes words which substitute other words that rhyme with them. Examples include crumb-bum (inferior person) and thriller-driller (exciting story or motion picture).there is some argument about rhyming slang: should it be called rhyming? The fact is that it is gradually losing its rhyming element. Rhyming slang is also called the language of the Cockneys. More detailed information about the Cockney language and its problem is revealed in 1.3 The Cockney language and Polari - extinct languages.slang words cannot be distinguished from other words by sound, grammar or other means, because, as it has been already mentioned in this paper, slang terms come into being in the same ways other words do. Thus, slang words and standard words are only WORDS and thy have common features.anyway, since the hypothesis of this paper suggests that knowledge of slang is a very important component in the development of ones linguistic competence it is necessary to throw a little light on these characteristics of slang. The characteristics are classified as following: phonetic characteristics, grammatical characteristics, word-building characteristics and orthographic characteristics. Examples described below can not necessarily be lexical slang units but there can be ordinary words phonetically and grammatically used in some slangy way. As it has been mentioned in this paper, from the point of view of grammar and phonetics they may be considered as slang, i.e. social dialects.characteristics

. The literary variant of the diphthong [ou] is expressed as [ә ] For example: go [ ] or [ ]; or row [ ] or [ ]

. The diphthong [ ] expressed graphically in open syllable by means of the letter I, is pronounced as [ ], e.g. time [ ], fine [ ], line [ ], etc.

. In the unstressed syllable [ ] is reduced to [i], e.g. by myself [ bi mi`self]

. The short sound [ i] is pronounced in slang as [e], e.g. dinner [`denә], children [` ], spirit [`sperit]

. The literary variant of the sound [ju:] is expressed in slang as [u:], e.g.: new [nu:], student [`stu:dnt], suit [su:t]

. Short [ ] is expressed as [ ], like: god [ ], dog [ ], loss [ ]

. Short [ ] is pronounced as [ i] or [e]. For example: sich or seck instead of such, jist or jest instead of just

. Sometimes sounds [t] and [d] after a consonant sound are omitted, e.g.: an aold chap [ ], I wonder [ ], you must go [ ]

. [sj] is replaced by [ ], e.g.: we shall miss you [ ], this year [ ]

. Unstressed syllables are often dropped out, like: stead (=instead), cept (=except), cos (=because)characteristics

. Adjectives are often used instead of adverbs, like: It was done quick. It must be done proper.

. Instead of personal pronouns in the nominative case personal pronouns in the accusative case are used, e.g.: me and her are great friends.

. who is used instead of whom, e.g.: for who, on who.

. Models of Imperative are very interesting: Leave (=let) me go! Be going!

. The form aint can stand for literary variants of am, is, are not

. Past Participle can be used instead of Past Indefinite, e.g.: I done it, I begun

. That is used instead of so, e.g.: He was that stuck up: it was that boring

. what for is employed instead of why, like: What for did`e come?building characteristics

. In the case of slang some words acquire the status of semi-suffixes. For example, the word monkey is used as a semi-suffix meaning worker, e.g.: air monkey, broom monkey, company monkey.

. In the case of hamburger it has devided into ham and burger, where the latter turned into an independent suffix, e.g.: beefburger, sausageburger, turkey-burger

. The word dog, as a semi-suffix, is the synonym for man (usually a sly or lucky man), e.g.: funny dog, lucky dog, smart dog

. The suffix o, which has no special meaning but has some slangy coloring, e.g.: weirdo (from weird), sicko (from sick), wrongo (from wrong)

. The process of forming new words in slang is characterized by the use of reduplication, which is sometimes accompanied by sound imitation, e.g.: boom-boom (gun), buzz-buzz, dingy-dingy (crazy), dum-dum (fool)

. Slang is also characterized by rhyming combination, e.g.: boob-tube (TV), cheat-sheet (crib), kick-stick (the cigarette with marijuana)characteristics

1.going to, want to and have got to are substituted by gonna, wanna and gotta;

I dont wanna go there

Im gonna give you a buzz

You gotta find this guy

2.because is replaced by coz: coz I saw them with my own eyes,

cuz : cuz I dont wanna hang out with you

cus : cus I really wanna rock with you

cause : cause I need you;

3.about is substituted by bout

What is this all shit bout?

4.Such phrases as get you or got you are graphically can be expressed as getcha and gotcha;

.ya can stand for your or you or youre:

Ya patience getting short

How much the kid love ya

Ya lookin awesome;

7.The auxiliary verb are can be substituted by a single letter r, and the personal pronoun you by a letter u, the preposition for can be changed by 4

How r u?; This is 4 u.

8.too or to can be graphically expressed as 2: I love u 2;

9.out of is replaced by outta:

Somethin got outta hand.sum up everything described above it is necessary to mention again that there are two classifications identifying the place of slang:

) cant, jargon and argot together make special slang. There is also general slang, which is not restricted to any particular professional group;

) slang, jargon, argot and cant together make a group of social dialects. All of them are regarded as independent. Colloquialisms have no place in either of these classifications. It is quite a different phenomenon and should be differentiated from slang.expressions arise in the same ways that other words come into being. Slang words can be presented in different forms: old words used in new meanings, clipped or lengthened words, metaphors and metonymies, acronyms, coinages, blends and rhyming slang.words like any other words are characterized from the point of view of phonetics, grammar and word-building. All these phonetic, grammatical, orthographical and word-building means bring to slang emotional coloring and expressiveness.

1.3 The Cockney language and Polari - extinct languages

In spite of the fact that slang is a lively language, there are however, such slang languages, which are thought to be extinct. To these the Cockney language and Polari are referred. The Cockney language or Rhyming slang has been popular since the mid-nineteenth century in England, although its origin is unknown. Rhyming slang is a slang that replaces a word with a word or phrase that rhymes with it. Many Cockneys in England and many Australians use such slang. For example, a Cockney might say Rosie Lee for tea, apples and pears for stairs or trouble and strife» for wife.

But why is rhyming slang said to be a language of the Cockneys? Who or What are they?

The word Cockney comes from cocken ay, a cocks egg, meaning a worthless towns-person. The term appeared in about the 16th century and was referred to those Londoners who were not part of the Royal Court. It was re-defined in the 18th century, as the working-class population of the city, who were joined by uneducated farm-workers from the countryside who traveled to East London in search of work. So, the Cockneys were uneducated working-class people lived in their own special communities. Like any other small community, the Cockneys had a large number of words and phrases, which had special meanings for them, but they took this to extremes by inventing a whole dialect- Rhyming slang., there is another version of the appearance of this unusual language, but there is almost no evidence that it is correct. It consists in the fact that in the 19th century East End criminals developed a special kind of a language, which made it difficult for the police to understand them.Cockneys language or rhyming slang is characterized by colorful language expressing the sheer enjoyment of words and by words run together.slang substitutes can be different, the urgent requirement is that they should rhyme with words they replace. Thus, phone becomes dog and bone, word becomes dicky bird, mouth - North and South.- tit for tat- Cain and Abel- bees and honey- loaf of bread - I supposecomplicating factor in studying rhyming slang is that the word that rhymes is almost always dropped out, thus making the etymology rather obscure to outsiders. For example, Titfer (meaning hat) was originally tit for tat; Tom (meaning jewelry) is short for tomfoolery, or daisies (meaning boots) came from daisy roots.other complication is that Cockney pronunciation varies from conventional British speech, it has another system of pronunciation of vowels and consonants, and it is especially famous for its silent h. It drops letters and slurs words, so havent turns into am and old becomes ol. you turns into yer and so on.swearing, Cockneys lent their style and expression to the new tongue as well. Arse is widely used and acceptable, as is sod in the right context (he is a cheeky young sod). Universally used are bleeding (чертов) and bugger (тип). Bugger is freely used to denote a bad person, but there are variants. You bugger!- unless there is a note of admiration- will always mean youre swine! and is for astonishment, while bugger off! means Get lost!, and finally, Bugger all means either little or nothing.people complain that rhyming slang is spoken to give the Cockneys an unfair advantage over strangers. In fact, it is really hard to understand a man or a woman who asks one where dog and bones is. If one does not know anything about rhyming slang, s/he will not even imagine that s/he is asked about the telephone.a lot of immigrants to Australia during the period from 1815 to 1861 were from London, most of them were obviously the Cockneys. Still Australians speak a very interesting and complicated slang- rhyming slang whose rhyming part is dropped. Moreover, they have a system of slang words and phrases, which have no resemblance with normal English or American slang, and which are really hard to understand without a special guide dictionary. (Appendix 1)

Polari (also seen as 'Palare') is a gay slang language, which has now almost died out.slang in Britain dates back to the involvement of the homosexual subculture with the criminal "underworld". The homosexual subculture of the Eighteenth Century mixed with the gypsies, tramps & thieves of popular song to produce a rich cross-fertilization of customs, phrases and traditions. As the Industrial revolution dramatically changed settlement patterns, more and more people drifted away from villages and small communities and moved to larger towns in search of work and opportunity. In these larger urban locations, the scope for the development of communities of outcasts substantially increased. The growth of molly houses (private spaces for men to meet, drink, have sex together and practice communal rituals) encouraged the creation of a molly identity. A linguistic culture developed, feeding into that profession traditionally associated with poofs and whores: theatre.itself was never clearly defined: an ever-changing collection of slang from various sources including Italian, English (backwards slang, rhyming slang), circus slang, and Yiddish and Gypsy languages. It is impossible to tell which slang words are real Polari. Linguists still argue about where it came from. The larger part of its vocabulary is certainly Italian in origin, but nobody seems to know how the words got into Britain. Some experts say its origins lie in the lingua franca of the shores of the Mediterranean, a pidgin in use in the Middle Ages and afterwards as a medium of communication between sailors and traders from widely different language groups, the core of this language being Italian and Occitan. Quite a number of British sailors learnt the lingua franca. On returning home and retiring from the sea it is supposed that many of them became vagabonds or travelers, because they had no other means of livelihood; this threw them into contact with roving groups of entertainers and fairground people, who picked up some of the pidgin terms and incorporated them into their own canting private vocabularies., other linguists point to the substantial number of native Italians who came to Britain as entertainers in the early part of the nineteenth century, especially the Punch and Judy showmen, organ grinders and peddlers of the 1840s. Much of parlarey, the traveling showmen's language, appears to be derived from the lingua franca or the vocabulary of traveling actors and showmen during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Specifically theatrical Palare included phrases such as joggering omee (street musician), slang a dolly to the edge (to show and work a marionette on a small platform outside the performance booth in order to attract an audience) and climb the slanging-tree (perform onstage). Nanty dinarly (having no money) also had a peculiarly theatrical translation in the phrase "There's no treasury today, the ghost doesn't walk."disappearance of large numbers of traveling costermongers and cheapjacks by the early twentieth century effectively denied the language its breathing space. As many of the traveling entertainers moved sideways into traveling circus, so the language moved with them, kept alive as a living and changing language within circus culture. By the mid-twentieth century, there had also been a cross-over to a recognizably gay form of slang, with polari used by the gay community to communicate in code in elaborate forms. Words such as trade and ecaf (backslang for face, shortened to eek) became part of gay subculture. Blagging trade (picking up sexual partners), zhoosing your riah (doing your hair), trolling to a bijou bar (stepping into a gay club) and dishing the dirt (recounting gossip) all became popular coded phrases to describe and encode an emerging homosexual lifestyle. By the 1950's, with secret homosexual clubs emerging in swinging London and the Wolfenden Committee discussing the possibility of law reform around (homo) sexuality, it seems appropriate that polari should raise its irreverent head. Polari became an appropriate tool with which to confuse and confound the naff omees (straight men). It traveled the world via the sea queens, who incorporated navy slang into a new version of the language and also accommodated local dialects and phrases., as the language came to be known was a collection of words, which when strung together by those most proficient at it, were incomprehensible to those who didn't understand it. It was mainly used for conversations that were high in gay "content", so if you wanted to point out to your friend that the man on the tube train next to you seemed to be particularly well-developed in the "menswear" department, you could say "vada the bona cartes on the ommee ajax" and your friend would know what you meant. If the man with the big "cartes" was also gay, he'd know what you were talking about too, and Polari would serve as an "introduction" which could lead to "other things".Polari died out in the 1960s when the Wolfenden Report legalized homosexuality (to an extent) in England, the only people who remember it tend to be distinguished older gentlemen Polari has almost vanished from gay circles. Mention it now and you'll more likely than not to get a blank look, especially from anyone under 30. And those who do profess to have heard of it are likely to only know a handful of words., there emerges a question, which really seems to be disputable: What is the point of calling the Cockney language Rhyming slang if the rhyming part is practically not used? Or, why there should be a separate language for gays, if they, nowadays, have no need to encode their speaking (with acquiring equal rights), and therefore they do not need this language. This fact makes these languages extinct. Perhaps, these languages will come into an ordinary slang vocabulary some day and lose their original value (as being rhyming or gay slang). But as long as these ;languages have not vanished completely yet, one should be aware of them too in case s/he comes across them, for they are also types of slang, and the knowledge of such slang promotes the development of the linguistic competence too, what again proves the hypothesis suggested.

2.The use of slang units in literature, songs, movies and Internet

Literary works, songs, movies and even Internet can serve as a source of slang: an author, a singer or a speaker while describing something, creates a new word or uses an existing one in some new meaning; and then readers, TV spectators or Internet users begin using this word in their speech. Thus it can become a slang item and then even get a standard status. But users of slang basically use it to create some specific and fresh tone in their description or speaking. The aim of the analysis described below is to present the most typical examples and situations where slang can be revealed and how it can be applied; and to prove that it is very hard to figure out authors intentions and ideas, if one does not know slang.this analysis different sources are selected: literary works, songs, movies and Internet.literary works the following ones were analyzed:

1.The Catcher in the Rye by JD Salinger;

2.A Patchwork Planet by Anne Tyler;

3.Rachels Holiday by Marian Keyes;

In The Catcher in the Rye Salinger writes about a teenager Holden Caufield and his relations with his parents and friends. Moreover the story of Holden is told on behalf of Holden himself, which helps a reader to see what language this character uses to reveal his thoughts and act out his feelings. Holdens speech is characterized by a unique colloquial tone achieved by the use of slang and colloquial expressions.is a very interesting teenager with an unusual way of thinking and outlook. Sometimes it is hard to understand him when he uses normal words, but when he uses some slangy words it causes some greater difficulty to understand his thoughts, although some of these slang expressions have already become standard ones.is very noticeable that Holdens speech is full of epithets when he evaluates something or somebody. These epithets sound very slangy. For example: phony -липовый (phony bastard, phony smile, phony girls); lousy- поганый, дерьмовый, вшивый (lousy childhood, lousy personality, lousy teeth, lousy movie); crumby or corny- беспонтовый, стремный (crumby old razor, crumby nails, corny shoes, corny jokes).

Get your lousy knees off my chest!, I told him. Go on, get off me, ya crumby bastard.

She kept saying these very corny, boring things, like calling the can the little girls room.evaluative slangy epithets sound rough and rude but nevertheless they help a reader to understand when Holden disapproves of something. Such slang expressions as to shoot the bull, to chew the rag, to chew the fat, to shoot the crap, to shoot the breeze have their Russian slang equivalents and are translated as балаболить, трепать языком. Judging by Russian equivalents these slang expressions can be understood as those meaning to lie but this meaning is hidden in other slang items. For example: to snow somebody (забалтывать, запудривать мозги), to chuck (заливать, вешать лапшу на уши), to give a lot of horse manure about… (втирать, пинать по ушам, приседать на уши). By the way speaking about horses some expressions with this word can be singled out: to horse around is understood as дурачиться, валять дурака, паясничать in the following sentence:

Sometimes I horse around just to keep from getting bored

But the phrase to horse around with… in the sentence: You shouldnt horse around with her at all obviously means зависать с…, тусоваться с…, угорать с…. This meaning also can be found in such phrase as to hang around and to hang out.

Take it easy! does not mean only Dont worry! but also So long! (Пока! Давай!) when somebody is leaving. Moreover this somebody does not just leave but clears the hell out or beats it, which is understood as смыться, свалить или просто уйти.

Stink or to stink in different contexts have different meanings. For example: to stink something up means запороть, запартачить, испортить but to make a big stink means закатить скандал, развоняться.meaning of thing (as an abstract notion) is presented by the following slang items: job - junk - stuff - crap, where job is the most is the most innocent and crap- the rudest.example:

They were these little hard, dry jobs you could hardly even cut

That kind of junk is sort of fascination

That stuff bores meI had to sit there and listen to that crapit has been already mentioned lousy means something bad and is mostly used in a rude sense, but to be lousy with something means to have a lot of something. For example:

He is lousy with money -у него уйма денег, у него денег куры не клюют.

Speaking about money this word almost does not emerge in Holdens speech, he mostly says dough (бабки, капуста, копейки, лавэ).one hears Holden say: Ive never given it to anybody but Ackley sometimes gets some old bag, then he starts giving her a feel and necking her knockers and then he gives her the time, it is very hard to see what he is talking about, but thanks to a knowledge of slang his language is not that complicated. Making a profound study it is evident that to give it or to give the time means to have sexual intercourse, to neck means to kiss, knockers stand for breasts, to give a feel denotes to touch (щупать) and at last an old bag means a woman ( букв. Старая кошелка).a bag does not always mean a sack but a sack does not necessarily denote a bag. For example:

Nobody was around anyway. Everybody was in the sackto be in the sack stands for to sleep (дрыхнуть).knockers as parts of an old bags body have ben mentioned, it is necessity to mention a can, which stands for butt or ass. But if a reader gets at such sentence as: It was steamy in the can. Or I walked around the can or I went to the can to wash up, he will probably think that it has something to do with butt. But it is wrong. Can is used here in the sense of bathroom. Thus a reader should bear in mind that there can be slang homonyms.Holden speaks about a booze hound, who boozes and gets crocked, he talks about an alcoholic, who drinks a lot and then gets drunk.Holdens language is difficult to perceive, what is typical of teenagers language, a reader can easily understand him, if he has a good command of slang.literary work A Patchwork Planet by Anne Tyler has been written in the XXI century. Thus the freshest slang items may be traced here. In comparison with The Catcher in the Rye told on behalf of Holden, a teenager, A Patchwork Planet is narrated on behalf of Barnaby, who is about 30-35 years old. However, despite the age of the main character, slang phrases can be found in his speech.slang examples with hang were figured out in The Catcher in the Rye, here in A Patchwork Planet a reader can find no less ones. For example: to hang around also means here тусоваться, угорать, шататься без дела. The same meaning is found in the slang expression to goof around.

Youd better do some more serious stuff instead of hanging and goofing around

Hang up is a core component in some slang expressions. For example: to be hung up on somebody or something stands for зациклиться на ком-либо или чем-либо; to hang up on somebody means пристать, прилипнуть к кому-либо but to hang up on somebody also stands for бросить трубку- for example:

You hung up on me! Why?

Booze, which was once singled out in The Catcher in the Rye also means here alcohol drink (пузырь); and to booze, therefore is understood as бухать, лечить гланды. People, who like to booze, tend to pay a visit to somebody, but this sounds very conventionally, they do not visit but drop up to somebody, which is understood as завалиться к кому-либо.it is obvious, many slang expressions in A Patchwork Planet reflect relations between people and their attitude to somebody or something. For example, among such slang items expressing relations one can find the following expressions: to hook up with somebody- связаться, спутаться с кем-либо; to stand somebody up - предать, обмануть кого-либо; to pick somebody up - подцепить кого-либо.about expressions reflecting peoples attitudes one can single out sharp! (Wow! Sharp!), which is understood as Cool! - Круто!, or if one finds a sentence where Barnaby says: Thats tough, it is obvious that it stands for Да…стремно.one heard Barnaby say: I stashed my money but somebody swiped it, it would be probably clear that to stash means to hide - заныкать, припрятать, and to swipe stands for стащить, стибрить.slang expressions are traced in Rachels Holiday by Marian Keyes- about 120-130 units. The main heroine of the work is a twenty-seven-year-old Rachel Walsh. Rachel desperately tries to find a soul mate to love…but her only drawback is that she is some sort of junkie (drug addict). Here to watch a love story is as possible as to watch a life of a junkie. Rachels Holiday combines two points:

) Love is a serious thing and it does not admit such a language as slang, it needs a more elevated and poetical language;

) The world of drugs is a good sphere for development and use of slang. Thus, here two opposite pints fight, what caused almost a 50/50 outcome.it is obvious from the description that Rachel is a junkie, which stands for drug addict (наркоша). Moreover drugs in slang can be substituted by hash (травка).

Anna, whod never had a real job, sometimes sold hash to make ends meet.

She is not a goody-goody. Just because shes not a, a…junkie who cant get a job and whose husband leaves her…unlike some, he finished.

Paul was obviously referring to Claire, who managed to get hitched by her husband on the same day that she gave birth to their first childthe last example to hitch stands for to abandon (кинуть). Maybe for somebody getting hitched is no big banana or maybe it really pisses one off. Here it is apparent that no big banana means no big problem, while to piss somebody off is a substitute for to get on ones nerves. These two slang phrases can be figured out in the following examples:

I had a toothache, thats all, no big banana.

No. She is a fine, big, tall girl. You know, strong, they said. I was always described as strong. It really pissed me off.

Hey there stands for Hi though it may sound a little impudent. The same meaning is revealed in Whats up?. Both should be used when addressing a very close person.

Hey there, girl!

Yo, girlfriend, whats up?get lost should not be mistaken here for go away. In the following example it is obvious that it means you are kidding (не гони, гонишь).summing everything up it would be correct to state that a knowledge of slang considerably simplifies comprehension of such literary works and gives a reader great opportunities to assess a style of an author and to understand an idea of a work.is necessary to mention that such works contain many slang units and a reader has a good chance to get acquainted with them and the use them in his/her speech thus filling a gap between him/her and native speakers.

english slang cockney polari

2.1 Songs

Even though slang is a speech phenomenon and is used mostly in Spoken English, and even though it found its place in literary works (mostly in dialogues), it does not necessarily mean that slang cannot be found in songs. Songs are also a good means in spreading of slang. Thus when hearing a song containing slang units, an English learner can include them in his/her active vocabulary and then recognize them when watching a movie or talking to somebody; or use them when producing his/her own speaking. This brings to the conversation some informal and relaxing spirit; it pushes off traditional and limited character of a common talk.course most songs are about love and mostly a romantic and elevated language full of serious things is used here, and it seems that there is no place for slang in them. But slang is a fast-running thing trying to find any way to come into notice.producers of songs apply slang in their works to also establish an easy atmosphere. Sometimes slang words are used in songs because they perfectly fit into a verse line without destroying or altering the meaning of the whole, thereby remaining a rhythmic tempo and rhyming tone. In other cases slang is used because it accurately reveals ideas of a song and because no other words can express these ideas. Sometimes slang is applied in songs in imitating something like a conversation, i.e. when a duo-song is performed or when a solo-singer reveals the ideas in such a way that reminds of talking to someone.course context or the plot of songs must be of major importance. Most songs, as it has already been mentioned, are about love, but it does not always mean that they cannot contain slang words. The question is what love is the subject of a song. Mostly it is unshared love. And when being frustrated a hero, on whose behalf a song is sung, cannot find suitable words to blame himself or damn everything that put him in this state. Speaking about emotions, it is mostly some negative spirit which is found in the cases of slang in songs, i.e. it is mostly applied when a negative attitude toward something is expressed. It can be again unshared love, it can be jealousy it can be envy, it can be anything that is difficult to express by means of simple words. In many songs slang is used in its rude meaning, the so-called vulgar slang. It intensifies the negative meaning and atmosphere of a song or a verse. Of course this may be considered silly to suggest listening to such songs and selecting vulgar slang words, but it is not necessary to use them in ones speech but at least it helps to recognize and identify them when seeing or hearing them, because knowledge of any slang words is of much importance in the development of ones linguistic competence.the analysis of the use of slang in songs different pop songs were selected. In the course of investigation various slang unites were figured out but also some grammar, sound and syntax deviations, which together make text-messaging slang. All this again has a slangy meaning and brings informal character to the verse.example in walking away performed by Craig David coz is employed instead of because

coz I saw them with my own eyes This is due to its ability to fluently link this verse with the preceding one. As a result the two lines flow smoothly non-stop. Because is not always substituted by coz, it can take different forms, but all of them are pronounced in the same manner and no differences are distinguished. Because can take its form as cause, cus and cuz. A lot of these because-forms were figured out in songs.

So hold you close to set you freeI just wanna see you smale again (Talk to Me by Smash)

There must be another wayI believe in taking chances (Overprotected by Britney Spears)

And if its good lets just make something cookingI really wanna rock with you (Superstar by Jamelia)

And I dont really know what to doIve got a thing about you (A thing about you by Roxette)these because-forms, as it has been said, are applied in verses as a linking component between two verse lines making a song go easy. Besides they keep the rhyming and rhythmic effect better than the whole because would.other deviations found in songs and characterizing slang one may point out the use of wanna, which serves as a substitute for want to. It proved to be a very popular form in songs. Such forms as gonna (=going to) and gotta (=have got to) have the same ability of fitting the best into a verse line. They also do not alter themeaning of the whole verse line but on the contrary they serve as a linking element between the words.

Some people dont wanna compromise or and well I dont wanna live and lie too many sleepless nights

(Walking Away by Craig David)

Is the love I gave her in the pastbe enough to lasttomorrow never comes

(If Tomorrow never comes by Ronan Keating)

You gotta tell me what you need from mehold you close so set you free (Talk to Me by Smash)

Im gonna wake up, yes and nom gonna kiss some part ofm gonna keep this secretm gonna close my body now

(Die Another Day by Madonna)

Aint was also distinguished among grammatical characteristics of slang. This form may stand for am not, isnt and arent. The aim of the use of aint is the same as that of cos, wanna and gonna. But this form as considerably rare:

I aint gonna hold out eitherma give it all to you baby

(I know what you want by Mariah Carey)loneliness aint killing me no morem stronger (Stronger by Britney Spears)

That was a different thingit aint (Shut Up by Black Eyed Peas)the forms described above, as it has been said, are characterized as slangy. And it is not a single example where these slangy forms can be revealed. They also can be found in movies and literature, though considerably less, but they are popular in songs due to their ability to make a song sound more easy and fluent.verses suggested above show good examples where slang forms can be revealed and how to use them. And these forms are not necessarily to be used in text messaging, i.e. to be used only while printing, they can successfully be applied in Spoken language making ones speech flow smoothly and uninterrupted.all the examples described above are slang examples regarded from the grammatical and orthographical point of view. As for the sheer lexical slang units they are used comparatively less in songs, apart from dirty slang, or vulgar slang. Dirty slang emotionally expresses a negative attitude toward something. Such songs containing vulgar slang words sound more expressive than if these words were substituted by stylistically neutral words. Among such songs the songs performed by Eminem abound in vulgar slang units a lot. Ordinary slang words reflecting almost no negative or rude attitude also find their expression in songs, though less in number.somebody refuses doing something or is reluctant to do something s/he may express her/his unwillingness by the slang expression no way. This expression was also figured out in songs when studying them:

Im falling apart in your hands againwayve got to get away (Objection by Shakira)

If hed told me, one daysomebodyd have my heart in chainsI believe, no wayup my mind Id never fall that way

(My Fathers Son by Rondor Music)these two cases the expression no way really fits the verse line and, besides, it carries out its function - to express unwillingness and to retain the rhyme. Sometimes slang words are used not only to perform a rhyming function but also to avoid repetition. This is where synonyms are required. Thus, for example, relax can be replaced by such slang synonyms as chill out, lay back and laugh out like in the song Complicated:

(Complicated by Avril Lavigne)these three slang synonyms contain the same number of syllables and thus, again, they perfectly fit the verse line. Besides the use of them helped to avoid the use of a simple verb relax, which might be applied several times within one song. These verbs also possess some informal spirit appropriate in spoken situations. This is due to the fact that these lines suggested above resemble somebody addressing another person and it looks like speaking to someone. That is why these slang words can be selected by English learners and applied in corresponding situations.is apparently noticeable that all songs suggested above mostly contain text-messaging slang, the one applied when typing than when speaking. Lexical slang units expressing neutral attitude rarely emerge in pop songs.slang or dirty English has also gained its place in songs, particularly in rap songs. To display the use of vulgar slang rap songs performed by Eminem are selected. Such songs sound very expressive and inferior. A great number of vulgar slang words or slang words in general, in rap songs is caused by the fact that they are extremely resemble ones speaking . Perhaps because rap songs do not follow the rules of rhyme and tone a lot, as a result the lines go like ones talk - without apparent rhyme and great timbre variations.most popular vulgar slang units in Eminems rap songs are shit, ass and fuck (and its derivatives). These are the words which function in his songs in different meanings. Shit mostly means thing as an abstract notion, which may be easily substituted by stuff. For example this meaning is expressed by shit in the following verses:

You know what Im saying, cause they dont know shit about this(Infinite by Eminem)

I got them open like marijuana smoke up in your nosethese hoes, I got that shit down to a science…

... You want your shit to blow up?Ima stuff some dynamite in your ass crackblast that shit to kingdom come

(313 by Eminem)the last verse shit means shit, while the second shit again means stuff or thing. Shit also can stand for something bad in general, i.e. to do shit would mean to do nasty things. This meaning is revealed in the following verse:

Ive seen it turn beautiful people rude and deceitfulmake them do shit illegal (Its OK by Eminem)compound bullshit does not mean shit of a bull but lie, nonsense or absurd:

So stop that bullshit and flow, you need to come with the real skills, and act like you know(313 by Eminem)

Fuck may not serve any syntactical function in the sentence but it serves to intensity Eminems emotional attitude to what he is singing, actually talking, about:

Inebriated, till my stress is elevatedis the fuck can Eminem and shady be related?

If you hear a man that sounds like me smack him and ask him where the fuck did he get this damn raps from

(Low Down. Dirty by Eminem)derivatives of fuck such as fucking or motherfucking are also applied for emotional expression.

Oh yeah, this is Eminem baby, back up in that motherfucking asstime your motherfucking mind, we represent the 313

(Infinite by Eminem)

Dumpin your dead body inside of a fucking trash can with more holes than Afgan (Just Dont Give a Fuck by Eminem)phrase I just dont give a fuck stands for I dont care. But the first sounds more impressive than if it were just I dont care:

But see me on the street and duckyou gon get stuck, stoned, and snuffedI just dont give a fuck

(Just Dont Give a Fuck by Eminem)Eminem says your ass it means you, and if it is somebodys ass it just means this somebody: his ass -he, her ass - she, my ass - I.

My rhymes they keep coming like nymph maniacs that masturbatea faster rate, yeah I got something for your ass to hate

This puppy is lucky I didnt blast his ass yet

(Criminal by Eminem)is noticeable that slang in the songs suggested above is either text-messaging, i.e. which is more apparent when typed than when pronounced, or dirty (vulgar). Neutral slang units reflecting no immorality, at least in the songs analyzed, have not been singled out. It is necessary to mention that although vulgar slang is described in this paper, it does not mean that this paper suggests learning such slang. This analysis has been aimed at suggesting different situations where any slang can be recognized, no matter what kind of slang it is: text-messaging or vulgar.source where slang can come from is a movie. Here one can really observe Spoken English. Different slang kinds were selected while analyzing the movies. The reasons of why slang is applied in movies are the same as in literature. For this analysis the following movies were chosen:

1.Dont be a Menace South Central (while drinking your juice in the hood).

2.Dumb and Dumber

.Pulp Fiction

.Finding Forrester

Sometimes in one movie the similar expressions of slang were discovered and it was decided to show only some examples of slang.first movie analyzed is Dont be a Menace South Central…. It is about one Afro-American guy Ashtray by name. His mother brings him to the black block to his father and wants him to become a real Afro-American man. The movie is hard to understand because of the accent most black people have, but nevertheless due to the fact that most black people in the movie are young it is possible to find some slang terms.

Hang out, which is rendered as зависать, was already singled out in The Catcher in the Rye and A Patchwork Planet, but these are literary works and this time this slang phrase is applied in a movie.

I dont want you to hang out somewhere.want you to be a man, buddy or pal can be substituted by a slang word dude (парнила) which is mostly applicable to a male person.

- Are you dating anyone?

- Well…there was one dudeWhats up? once meant Whats happened? then now, as a slang phrase, it stands for Hi and at the same time How are you doing?. That is why it is enough to say just Whats up and this will express both meanings, moreover this slang phrase requires the same reply.

- Whats up, man?

- Whats up, young blood?Whats up? is used in greeting, there is also a slang expression used in farewell - Take care (Пока, бывай) and it should not be mistaken for be careful.vulgar slang the following words are singled out: shit, fuck and suck. Shit mostly means stuff and thing.

Pass me that shit over there

She tells me the same shit

He will fuck your head up when he learns thatthe paper is not able to give the Russian variant, which is the closest to the meaning, but this phrase can be rendered as to punish severely.

Motherfucking and motherfucker are of the same stem, but the first functions as an adjective and the latter as a noun. Motherfucking is actually hard to render but it is mostly used when one is furious:

I tell ya, get off this motherfucking music

Motherfucker can be substituted by bastard, but it is much more offensive. Sucker is also much more offensive than just fool

Dreams are for suckers

Get your ass out of here (свали, катись отсюда) sounds rude too though this meaning can be revealed by get out of here or go away.

Dumb and Dumber is about two guys, Harry and Lloyd, who in the course of the whole movie are doing stupid things. The movie itself is a comedy and it allows the use of slang, because comedies tend to create an easy and due to the use of the language people usually speak in everyday life these movies are closer to viewers.Harry asked Lloyd: How much dough do we have? some viewers might misunderstand him: why dough and for what? Here dough means the same as in The Catcher in the Rye. It stands for money, though dough belongs to food. Speaking about food there was also a piece of cake which did not mean any food actually, in the following context it denotes an easy thing (легкотня).

- She is gonna leave the brief case near the escalator.make the pick-up

- Piece of cakeLloyd said to Harry Get out of here it did not mean that he wanted Harry to disappear. In the following context it is obvious that saying this he expressed his disbelief. This phrase is applicable in any case of expressing disbelief and can be used instead of simple You are kidding! (Не гони).

- You know I talked to her

- Get out of here!!!!

To freak out in this movie stands for to get nervous (психовать).

They always freak out when you leave the scene of an accidentabout being nervous the act of making someone mad can be rendered

2.2 What factors promote the use of slang in literary works

Although slang is a speech phenomenon it can be found in literary works too, mostly in dialogues. Thus when reading some work a reader can see a language of characters, and no wonder if slang is chosen s a language. But what promotes the use of slang in literary works? No doubt that characters are of the great role. Their age and social status play no less role. Settings and events also belong to the group of factors influencing slang frequency in literary works. Thus making a study of some works it was discovered that slang rate in different literary works varies due to the factors mentioned above.this analysis the following works of about 200-220 pages were chosen:

1.Farewell, my Lovely by Raymond Chandler;

2.To have or Have Not by Ernest Hemingway;

.Crome Yellow by Aldous Huxley;

.Rachels Holiday by Marian Keyes;

.The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger.

The aim of this analysis is to figure out frequency value of slang units. The judgments are based on the factors described. The work, which abounds in slang most, is, of course, The Catcher in the Rye (about 1000 slang units). This is due to the fact that the work is about Holden Caulfield, a teenager, and relationship with his friends. Thus a language typical of teenagers is found here. For example: dough, can, cut it out!, hang out», lousy. Slang words are revealed not only in the main characters speech, but also in the speech of his friends, for they are teenagers too. And since teenagers are said to be the most active users of slang, a reader can find in The Catcher in the Rye the proof of this assumption.items in Farewell, my Lovely make about 170-180 units (approximately 1 slang unit per each page). The main character of this detective novel is Phillip Marlow, an investigator, but this is not him, who speaks a language of slang. In this work slang is a language of criminals, who do not only maintain slang expressions but also create new ones, for example: Smokes (Negroes), shine box (Negro), hot car list (a list of stolen cars), to barber ( to gossip), juju or a stick of tea ( marihuana). As it has been already mentioned in this paper that immorality promotes the use of slang a lot, here a reader can see for himself/herself that it is really so. The number of slang items in Farewell, my Lovely is rather high, because these items concentrate around immoral and anti-social lives of criminals.slang expressions, but not the least, are traced in Rachels Holiday by Marian Keyes- about 120-130 units. The main heroine of the work is a twenty-seven-year-old Rachel Walsh. Rachel desperately tries to find a soul mate to love…but her only drawback is that she is some sort of junkie (drug addict). Here to watch a love story is as possible as to watch a life of a junkie. Rachels Holiday combines two points:

) Love is a serious thing and it does not admit such a language as slang, it needs a more elevated and poetical language;

) The world of drugs is a good sphere for development and use of slang. Thus, here two opposite pints fight, what caused almost a 50/50 outcome. The following slang examples were found: to sack (to fire), a junkie (drug addict), to ditch (to walk out on somebody, stiff (the dead), hash (marihuana).To Have and Have Not by Ernest Hemingway brought the following results: 80-90 slang units. The main figure in this novel is Harry Morgan, a fisherman, who goes bankrupt, because he lent his most expensive fishing-tackles to a rich tourist, but who did not pay Morgan. Unable to buy a new net Morgan illegally transports whiskey. Morgans conditions put him in contact with contrabandists and terrorists, moreover he commits murder. This atmosphere of unfair business, suspicious deals, robberies and murders makes a slang language work. The following slang examples were traced here: goof (a fool), to sock (to hit), chink (Chinese), hot (drunk), stool (spy), to rat on (to betray).last work analyzed and having the least quantity of slang units is Crome Yellow by Aldous Huxley (5-8 units). The reason of such poor concentration of slang expressions in the work is that there was no atmosphere enforcing the use of slang. Denis Stone, the main figure in the work, is a young and promising writer. He lives in, but not hangs out with, the society of educated people, who speak mostly about some elevated and sophisticated things. Those slang units found in Crome Yellow substitute neutral notions reflecting no immorality, such as: to give a buzz (to phone), loaf (a head), John (toilet), to get hitched (to get married).it is necessary to mention that a narrator plays a great role I the promotion of slang too. All the works except Crome Yellow are narrated on behalf of the main characters, what promotes the use of slang even in the narration. Crome Yellow is narrated from the point of view of an author what excludes the possibility of finding slang units in narration. After making this analysis the following assumption was proved: the use of slang units in literary works depends on the age and social status of characters, their way of life, people surrounding them and a narrator.it has already been mentioned in this paper that uneducated people, teenagers, criminals and drug addicts are active users of slang, this proves to be evidence of concentration of slang words in the literary works analyzed.

Conclusion

The investigation made on the theme Slang as a part of the English language helps to make the following conclusion.to the fact that there is a growing necessity to learn an authentic language, slang should also be learned because it is also a part of the language.aim of the paper has been analyzing the importance of knowledge of slang. Accordingly there has been suggested a hypothesis that knowledge of slang is a very important component in the development of linguistic competence, for it simplifies communication and guarantees more accurate understanding.studying and systematizing the theoretical material on the theme and after analyzing the use of slang, the hypothesis suggested has been proved and one can come to a conclusion that knowledge of slang really simplifies communication and comprehension and lets a reader evaluate literary works properly., as a part of the English language should also be paid attention in teaching. The urgency of this problem consists in the fact that people contact with native speakers more than ever and they feel a great demand to know an authentic language.

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