Subject: ways of expressing the sentence
Introduction
The given annual project is dedicated to the linguistic problem - The Subject: Ways of Expressing It in the Sentence.
The main goal of the work is to identify the main features of the subject in the sentence, basing on the theoretical and scientific works of Russian, English, American, Moldovan and Romanian authors, and examine the subject and its features in the works of American and English fiction.
The objectives of the thesis, in their turn, represent ascending steps to the main goal of the project:
.to define the notion of the subject;
. to present the classification of the subject according to the theoretical sources of the examined works of the linguists.
.to present the ways the subject is expressed in the sentence.
. to identify the subject features and the ways it is expressed in the works of the investigated American and English fiction.
. to compare the means the subject is expressed in fiction in the works of such writers as: The Book of Grotesque by Sherwood Anderson, The Magic Barrel by Bernard Malamud, The Last Leaf, The Gift of the Magi by O. Henry, The Man with the Scar, The Door of Opportunity, A Friend in Need by W.S. Maugham.
Actuality of the work maintains the basic functions of the subject in the sentence as one of the main constituents and its continual study due to this fact. That is a linguistic phenomenon having been introduced into education on different educative levels starting from the simplest definitions in primary school and reaching gradually deep theoretical interpretations of the subject in the institutions of higher education.annual project is based mainly on the scientific sources of English and Russian linguists, such as:, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik, Richard Gardiner, Timothy Cobb, Geoffrey Leech, as for the Russian grammarians: V. L. Kaushanskaya, I. P. Krylova, M. A. Ganshina, N.M. Vasilevskaya, Б. А. Ильин., the works of the Romanian scholars - Andrey Bahtaş and Leon Levitchi, and others.
Thus, Chapter One of the present project embodies three points:
.The definitions of the subject;
.Classification of the subject (from structural and functional points of view);
.Ways of expressing the subject;English grammar the subject (along with the predicate) is researched by a number of linguists and philologists. It is defined in different interpretations, but still the entire variants base on one common backbone of the notion:subject (abbreviated sub. or su.) is one of the two main constituents of a clause or a simple sentence, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle. It is the main part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the predicate is grammatically dependent.subject is sometimes said to be the relatively familiar element, to which the predicate is added as something new, The utterer throws into his subject all that he knows the receiver is already willing to grant him, and to this he adds in the predicate what constitutes the new information to be conveyed by the sentence… [4, 154], the following features of the subject are maintained in most definitions of the studied linguists:) the subject is normally a noun or a clause with nominal function;) the subject occurs before the verb phrase in declarative clauses, and immediately after the operator in questions;) the subject has number and person concord, where applicable, with the verb phrase.classifications of the subject are presented according to the role and structure of the subject in the sentence.of expressing the subject vary in conformity with the parts of speech and constructions it is presented by.Two is the practical part of the given work on the basis of the studied fiction, such as:
. American fiction: The Book of Grotesque by Sherwood Anderson, The Magic Barrel by Bernard Malamud;
The Gift of the Magi, The Last Leaf by O. Henry;
. English fiction: The Man with the Scar, The Door of Opportunity, A Friend in Need by W.S. Maugham.practical part is aimed at investigation of the subject features in the works of American and English fiction and fulfillment of the comparative analysis in the given works of two different cultures - American and English.results of the executed practical work demonstrating common and contrasting ways of expressing the subject in British and American fiction are evidenced in conclusion of the project.
subject sentence
1.Chapter One. The Subject: Ways of Expressing It in the Sentence
.1 Definitions of the Subject
The notion of the Subject in the grammatical theory of the English language can be presented very briefly and clearly: it is the main part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the predicate is grammatically dependent. [8, 67]reason for calling the subject and the predicate the main parts of the sentence and distinguishing them from all the other parts which are treated as secondary, is roughly this. The subject and the predicate between them constitute the backbone of the sentence: without them the sentence would not exist at all, whereas all the other parts may or may not be there, and if they are there, they serve to define or modify either the subject, or the predicate, or each other. [10, 205]linguistic experiment to prove the correctness of this view would be to take a sentence containing the subject, a predicate, and a number of secondary parts, and to show that any of the secondary parts might be removed without the sentence being destroyed, whereas if either the subject or the predicate were removed there would be no sentence left: its backbone would be broken. This experiment would probably succeed and prove the point in a vast majority of cases.question now arises: what criteria do we practically apply when we say that a word (or, sometimes, a phrase) is the subject of a sentence? [10, 206]grammatical phenomenon of the subject in English has been examined by a number of linguists, philologists and grammatical experts both of English and foreign origin in different epochs. This notion is defined in various interpretations; still the common backbone is identified in all of them. Lets retrace this common thread, kept in all the definitions of the subject.Greenbaum in The Oxford English Grammar notes that the subject of a sentence is the constituent that normally comes before the verb in a declarative sentence and changes position with the operator in an interrogative sentence. It is applicable, the verb agrees in number and person with the subject (I am ready): the subject I is first person singular and so is am [2,305]Roberts in Understanding Grammar presents the subject as the element stressed or the new element added to the discourse end in complexities that are interesting philosophically but useless grammatically. The beginners device to find the subject is first to find the verb and then ask who? or what before it. When the subject is very specific (e.g. a proper name), we may even invert the normal word order without befuddling out listeners. [6, 405]brief definitions of the subject are presented by Richard Gardiner and Timothy Cobb in Todays English Grammar from one side, and by Geoffrey Leech in An A-Z of English Grammar and Usage from the other side.Todays English Grammar the authors state that the word indicating the person or thing referred to is called the subject of the sentence. [1, 202]Leech, in his turn, notes that the subject is a grammatical term for the past of a clause or sentence which generally goes before the verb phrase (in statements). [5, 413]philologists, such as Kaushanskaya in «Грамматика английского языка», say that the subject is the principal part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the second principal part (the predicate) is grammatically dependent, i.e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in number and person. The subject can denote a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea. [13, 115]to I. P. Krylova in A Grammar of Present Day the subject is a word or a group of words which names the person, object or phenomenon the sentence informs us about. [14,85], we can identify the following common points:) the subject is normally a noun phrase or a clause with nominal function;) the subject occurs before the verb phrase in declarative clauses, and immediately after the operator in questions;) the subject has number and person concord, where applicable, with the verb phrase. [3, 158]
Б. А. Ильин in «Строй современного английского языка» examines the question first of all by formulating the structure of the definition itself. It is bound to contain the following items: (1) the meaning of the subject, that is its relation to the thought expressed in the sentence, (2) its syntactical relations in the sentence, (3) its morphological realization: here a list of morphological ways of realizing the subject must be given, but it need not be exhaustive, as it is our purpose merely to establish the essential characteristics of every part of the sentence.definition of the subject would, then, be something like this. The subject is one of the two main parts of the sentence. (1) It denotes the thing whose action or characteristic is expressed by the predicate. (2) It is not dependent on any other part of the sentence. (3) It may be expressed by different parts of speech, the most frequent ones being: a noun in the common case, a personal pronoun in the nominative case, a demonstrative pronoun occasionally, a substantivized adjective or past participle, a numeral, an infinitive, and a gerund. It may also be expressed by a phrase. [10, 207]
.2 Classification of the subject
are some classifications given by different authors. For example, from the structural point of view and functional point of view
.2.1 Classification of the subject from the structural point of view
From the point of view of the structure, the subject can be:
1.Simple, expressed by a word or a number of words in the nominal case, the combination of which represents one doer of the action.glass renders a mans form or likeness so true as his speech. (Ben Johnson, Timber)proper force of words lies not in the words themselves, but in their application. (William Hazlitt, On Familiar Style)things are admired either because they are new or because they are great. (Francis Bacon)in his novels Hardys pessimism is always a fighting pessimism. (T.A. Jackson, Thomas Hardy)do you think the weather will be tomorrow?
2.Compound, expressed by two or more nouns that represent one and the same notion (or one and the same person)great poet, essayist and philosopher died in 1882. (Emerson)
3.Coordinated or Homogeneous, that unites two or more different objects with the conjunction.and Maggie are the principal characters in The Mill of the Floss. (G. Eliots novel)
4.Complex, expressed by a special construction, first of all, by a noun in the nominal case with an infinitive or with a participle:had been reported to move house.rain could be heard rapping against the windows.
5.Double that is characteristic of the English folklore.
Some suits, some suits, the sheriff he said, Some suits Ill give to thee. (Robin Hood Rescuing the Widows Three Sons) [9, 186]
1.2.2 Classification of the Subject from functional point of viewmost typical semantic role of a subject is AGENTIVE; that is the animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by the verb:opened the letter.from its agentive function, the subject frequently has an INSTRUMENTAL role; that is, it expresses the unwitting (generally inanimate) material cause of the event:avalanche destroyed several housesintransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the AFFECTED role that is elsewhere typical of the object:fell downpencil was lying on the tablemay also extend this latter function to subjects of intensive verbs:pencil was on the tableis now possible to see a regular relation, in terms of clause function, between adjectives or intransitive verbs and the corresponding transitive verbs expressing CAUSATIVE meaning:
S affected Sagent/instr.Oaffecteddoor opened John/The key opened the doorflowers have died The frost has killed the flowersSagent/instr Oaffectedroad became narrower They narrowed the roadgot angry His manner angered meSagentive Oaffecteddog was walking I was walking my dog [3,160]
The subject may also have a recipient role with verbs such as have, own, possess, benefit (from), as is indicated by the following relation:. Smith has bought/given/sold his son a radio → So now his son has/owns/possesses the radioperceptual verbs see and hear also require a recipient subject, in contrast to look at and listen to, which are agentive. The other perceptual verbs taste, smell, and feel have both an agentive meaning corresponding to look at and a recipient meaning corresponding to see:, he tasted the soup
* Foolishly, he tasted the pepper in the soupadverb foolishly requires the agentive; hence, the second sentence, which can only be understood in a non-agentive manner, does not make sense.indicating a mental state may also require a recipient subject:thought you were mistaken (cf It seemed to me…)liked the play (cf The play gave me pleasure), recipient subjects go with stative verbs. Some of them (notably have and possess) have no passive form:have a beautiful house ↔ A beautiful house is had by themsubject may have the function of designating place or time:path is swarming with ants (= Ants are swarming all over this path)bus holds forty people (=Forty people can sit in the bus)swarm, the verbs in such sentences do not normally admit the progressive (* The bus is holding…) or the passive (* Forty people are held …).subjects can usually be replaced by the empty it, the temporal expression becoming adjunct:is my birthday (= It is my birthday tomorrow)winter of 1970 was exceptionally mild (= It was exceptionally mild in the winter of 1970)subjects (with abstract noun heads designating arrangements and activities) differ from others in permitting intensive complementation with a time adverbial:concert is on Thursday (but * The concert hall is on Thursday), a subject may lack semantic content altogether, and consist only of the meaningless prop word it, used especially with climatic predications:s raining/snowing, etc. Its getting dark Its noisy in here [3, 163]: The prop subject it as discussed here must be distinguished from the anticipatory it of sentences like It was nice seeing you, where the prop subject is a replacement for a postponed clausal subject (= Seeing you was nice).
1.3 Ways of Expressing Subject
it is stated above, the Subject is the main part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the predicate is grammatically dependent. [7, 67]subject can be expressed by different parts of speech and by different constructions:
. The noun in the common (or occasionally possessive) case;sulky waiter brought my tea. (Du Maurier)slowly turned his head. (Douglas) [13, 226]address must be written in the center of the envelope.Swift is the father of irony. (E.B. Browning, Aurora Leigh) [9, 185]a noun in the possessive case is used as the subject of the sentence.. Gummidges was in a fretful disposition. (Dickens), my dear Richard, Adas is a noble heart. (Dickens)
. A pronoun (personal, demonstrative, defining, indefinite, negative, possessive, interrogative);about an hour I heard Montgomery shouting my name. That set me thinking of my plan of action. (Wells)were clad in the same soft, and yet strong silky material. (Wells)were happy.was silent for a minute. (Wells)was said on either side for a minute or two afterwards. (Dickens)is not a very comfortable lodging … (Dickens)tore this book? (Twain) [13, 226]pronouns one, we, you are much used with the same general or indefinite force:
As long as one is young, one easily acquires new friends.
We dont like to be flatly contradicted.
You dont like to be snubbed. [12, 149]
. A substantivized adjective or participle;Privileged have seen that charming and instructive sight. (Galsworthy)wounded were taken good care of.
. A numeral (cardinal or ordinal);course, the two were quite unable to do anything. (Wells)first and fourth stood beside him in the water. (Wells)were indeed young, about eleven and ten. (Galsworthy)first was a tall lady with dark hair … (Bronte) [11, 335]
. An infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction;see is to believe.live uprightly, then, is sure the best. (John Dryden) [9, 185]prolong doubt was to prolong hope. (Bronte)him to come was impossible.be a rich man, Lieutenant, is not always roses and beauty. (Heym) [13, 226]walk is useful. Walking is useful. [17, 38]
. A gerund, a gerundial phrase or construction;doesnt go well with me.the war is what counts. [7, 67]is a healthy exercise.and ministering Kit was her best care. (Galsworthy) [11, 335]others teaches yourself. [9, 185]
. Any part of speech used as a quotation;is a preposition.is the first letter of the English alphabet.is a conjunction.is his usual reply to any request. [13, 227]
^ is the sign of perpendicular. [16, 50]
8. A group of words which is one part of the sentence, i.e. a syntactically indivisible group.needle and thread is lost. (here the subject represents one person).friend and defender is darkly groping towards the solution. [7, 67]two is four.to do this is a difficult question. [11, 335]
. It as the subject of the sentence.English the pronoun it is sometimes used as the subject of a sentence.
Table
Types of subject itCharacteristicsExamplesNotionalit represents a living being or a thing and has the following characteristics: P stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea - the personal it; P points out a person or thing expressed by a predicative noun, or it refers to the thought contained in a preceding statement, thus having a demonstrative meaning - the demonstrative it;The door opened. It was opened by a young girl of thirteen or fourteen. (Dickens) If this is a liberty, it isnt going to mean a thing. (Lindsay) It is John. It was a large room with a great window. (Dickens) Dick came home late, it provoked his father. (Lindsay)Formalit doesnt represent any person or thing. Here we must distinguish: a) the impersonal it, which is used to denote: * denotes natural phenomena (such as the state of the weather, etc.) or that which characterizes the environment. In such sentences the predicate is either a simple one, expressed by a verb denoting the state of the weather, or a compound nominal one, with an adjective as predicative. * to denote time and distance b) the introductory or anticipatory it introduces the real subject. When the subject of a sentence is an infinitive, or a gerund or a whole clause, it is placed after the predicate and the sentence begins with the pronoun it which is called an anticipatory or introductory it. c) the emphatic it is used for emphasis. It is cold in winter. It often rains in autumn. It is stuffy in here. It is delightfully quiet in the night. It is five minutes past six. How far is it from your office to the bank? (Galsworthy) It is a long way to the station. It is morning already. Its no use disguising facts. It was curious to observe that child. It was he who had brought back George to Amelia. (Thackeray) It was Winifred who went up to him. (Galsworthy) construction there is
When the subject of the sentence is indefinite (a book, books, some books), it is often placed after the predicate verb and the sentence begins with the introductory particle there. The word there has no stress and is usually pronounced with the neutral vowel /ðƏ/ instead of /ðέƏ/. It has lost its local meaning, which is shown by the possibility of combining it in the sentence with the adverbs of place here and there:was a gate just there, opening into the meadow… (Bronte)
Theres a good spot over there. (Cusack) [11, 341]are specifically different in cases when it and there are used in subject positions as representatives of words or longer units which embody the real content of the subject but are postponed.is most pleasant that she has already come.was easy to do so.are a few mistakes in your paper.were no seats at all.
It and there in such syntactic structures are generally called anticipatory or introductory subjects.
There in such patterns is often referred to as a function word, and this is not devoid of some logical foundation [15, 94] Sentences with the introductory there may serve to assert or deny the existence of something. In sentences with the introductory there the predicate verb is usually the verb to be; occasionally some other verbs are found, such as to live, to occur, to come, etc., which, similarly to the verb to be, indicate to exist or have the meaning of to come into the existence:was a little pause. (Voynich)
(there - an introductory particle; was - a simple verbal predicate; a pause - the subject; little - an attribute)
…there is the rustle of branches in the morning breeze;
…there is the music of a sunny shower against the window; (Gissing)came a laugh, high, gay sweet. (Galsworthy) r
…there came a scent of lime-blossom. (Galsworthy)soon appeared, pausing in the dark doorway as he entered, a hale, grey-haired old man. (Dickens) [11, 341]
2. Chapter Two. Ways of Expressing Subject in Fiction
part of the given project, presented in Chapter Two, brings to light subject features, investigated from theoretical point of view in Chapter One, in separate examples, drawn from fiction works. Opposing works of American and British English fiction, the paper is aimed at distinguishing subject peculiarities in both fiction sides. Thus, the investigated works are The Book of Grotesque by Sherwood Anderson, The Magic Barrel by Bernard Malamud, The Last Leaf, The Gift of the Magi by O. Henry concerning American writers and The Man with the Scar, The Door of Opportunity, A Friend in Need by W. S. Maugham for British authors.
.1 Ways of Expressing Subject in British Fiction
The greatest English playwright, novelist and short story writer, considered one of the most popular writers of his era, and reputedly, the highest paid author during the 1930s [#"justify">We draw our conclusions from the shape of the jaw, the look in the eyes, the contour of the mouth. [26, 355]
When you made him that offer of a job, did you know hed be drowned? [26, 360]
Well, I hadnt got a vacancy in my office at the moment. [26, 360]
She gave him a long searching look. [25, 501]
In your place I should never have been able to resist the temptation to take my eight cops and have a whack at the blighters myself. [25, 503]
She is waiting at the prison door. [27, 229]second preferable part of speech in the subject role is a noun in the nominal case.
The blood spurted from the cut vein and dyed his shirt. [27, 230]
This scar spoke of a terrible wound and I wondered whether it had been caused by a sabre or by a fragment of shell. [27, 228]
But Alban had already a London look. [25, 495]
Anne quickly made friends with the shy, pretty native woman and soon was playing happily with the children. [25, 496]parts of speech in the Subject position are surely kept but in much less frequent periodicity.
That was how you thought a poet should look. [25, 515] where that is a demonstrative pronoun in the Subject role.
Two or three shouted back in answer. [25, 525] where two and three are cardinal numerals occupying Subject position in the sentence.
The worst of it was that Anne knew how low an opinion Alban had of the Governors parts. [25, 514] where the worst of it is construction carrying Subject function in the sentence.
How can anyone be so shameless? [25, 532] where anyone is indefinite pronoun in the Subject role.
Nothing that concerns me was at stake. [25, 530] where nothing is a negative pronoun carrying the Subject function.
All that was far away in the future. [25, 527] where indefinite pronoun all is in the Subject role.Subject it is surely also presented in the works of W. S. Maugham. In consequence of its research we can state that the frequency of the usage of notional it is much higher in comparison with the formal it in the works of W. S. Maugham.
Its only an hours journey, said Anne. [25, 495] where it is formal denoting time aspect.
It was a room with twin beds and a bathroom. [25, 502] where it