The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT
BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND
Lecture 1. Geography of the UK
foreigners say "England" and "English"
when they mean Britain, or the UK, and the British. This is very annoying for
the 5mil people who live in Scotland, the 2,8mil in Wales, and l,5 mil in N.
Ireland who are certainly not English. However, the people from Scotland, Wales
and N. Ireland and England are all British.
1.
Territory and its structure
UK of GB and NI is the political name of the country which is
made of England, Scotland, Wales and N. Ireland (Ulster). Several islands off
the Br.coast are also part of the UK (the Isle of Wight, the Orkneys, Hebrides
and Shetlands, and the Isle of Scilly). GB is the name of the island which is
made up of England, Scotland and Wales and it doesn't include N. Ireland. The
southern part of the isle of Ireland is the Republic of Eire.is one of the
world's smaller countries with an area of some 244 100 square km, with some 58
mil people. It stretches for 1000 km from the south to the extreme north, and
for 500 km in the widest part.half the people live in a large belt stretching
north-westwards from London across England. Other large concentrations of
population are in the central lowlands of Scotland, south-east Wales and the
Bristol area, parts of north-east England and along much of the English Channel
coast.
Wales is located on a peninsula in central-west Britain. Its
area, the size of Wales, is about 20,779 km² (8,023
square miles - about the same size as Massachusetts, Slovenia or El Salvador). It is about
274 km (170 miles) north-south and 97 km (60 miles) east-west. Wales is
bordered by England to the east and by sea in the other three directions: the Môr
Hafren (Bristol
Channel) to the south, St. George's Channel to the west, and the Irish Sea to
the north. Altogether, Wales has over 1,200km (750 miles) of coastline. There
are several islands off the Welsh mainland, the largest being Ynys
Môn
(Anglesey) in the northwest.of Wales' diverse landscape is mountainous,
particularly in the north and central regions. The mountains were shaped during
the last ice age, the Devensian glaciation. The highest mountains in Wales are
in Snowdonia (Eryri), and include Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), which, at 1085 m (3,560
ft) is the highest peak in Wales. The 14 (or possibly 15) Welsh mountains over
3,000 feet (914 m) high are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s. The Brecon
Beacons (Bannau Brycheiniog) are in the south (Highest point Pen-y-Fan 886m
(2,907ft)). and are joined by the Cambrian Mountains in mid-Wales, the latter
name being given to the earliest geological period of the Paleozoic era, the
Cambrian.has three National Parks: Snowdonia, Brecon Beacons and Pembrokeshire
Coast. It also has four Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. These areas
include Anglesey, the Clwydian Range, the Gower Peninsula and the Wye Valley.
The Gower Peninsula was the first area in the whole of the United Kingdom to be
designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, in 1956.with its Celtic
cousins in Cornwall, the coastline of South and West Wales has more miles of
Heritage Coast than anywhere else. The coastline of the Glamorgan Heritage
Coast, the Gower Peninsula, Pembrokeshire, Carmarthenshire, and Ceredigion is
particularly wild and impressive. Gower, Carmarthenshire, Pembrokeshire and
Cardigan Bay all have clean blue water, white sand beaches and impressive
marine life. Despite this scenic splendour the coast of Wales has a dark side;
the south and west coasts of Wales, along with the Irish and Cornish coasts,
are frequently blasted by huge Atlantic westerlies/south westerlies that, over
the years, have sunk and wrecked many vessels. On the night of October 25,
1859, 114 ships were destroyed off the coast of Wales when a hurricane blew in
from the Atlantic; Cornwall and Ireland also had a huge number of fatalities on
its coastline from shipwrecks that night. Wales has the somewhat unenviable
reputation, along with Cornwall, Ireland and Brittany, of having per square
mile, some of the highest shipwreck rates in Europe. The shipwreck situation
was particularly bad during the industrial era when ships bound for Cardiff got
caught up in Atlantic gales and were decimated by "the cruel
sea".Cornwall, Brittany and Ireland, the clean, clear waters of South-west
Wales of Gower, Pembrokeshire and Cardigan Bay attract visitors including
basking sharks, Atlantic grey seals, leatherback turtles, dolphins, porpoises,
jellyfish, crabs and lobsters. Pembrokeshire and Ceredigion in particular are
recognised as an area of international importance for bottle nosed dolphins,
and New Quay in the middle of Cardigan Bay has the only summer residence of
bottle nosed dolphins in the whole of the U.K.modern border between Wales and
England is highly arbitrary; it was largely defined in the 16th century, based
on medieval feudal boundaries. It has apparently never been confirmed by
referendum or reviewed by any Boundary Commission. The boundary line (which
very roughly follows Offa's Dyke up to 40 miles (64 km) of the northern coast)
separates Knighton from its railway station, virtually cuts off Church Stoke
from the rest of Wales, and slices straight through the village of Llanymynech
(where a pub actually straddles the line).
2. Seas
and coastline
UK is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the north-west, north
and south-west, and is separated from the European continent by the North Sea,
the Straight of Dover and the English Channel.is comparatively small, but there
is hardly a country in the world where such a variety of scenery can be found
in so small a compass. There are small and desolate mountains in the northern
Highlands of Scotland -the home of the deer and the eagle - that are as lonely
as any in Norway. There are flat tulip fields round the Fens (low marshy land
with lots of waterways) that would make you think you were in Holland. Within a
few miles of Manchester and Sheffield you can be in glorious heather-covered
moors. Once the British Isles were part of the mainland of Europe - the nearest
point is across the Strait of Dover, where the chalk cliffs of Britain are only
22 miles from those of France.seas round the British Isles are shallow. The
North Sea is nowhere more than 600 feet deep, so that if St. Paul's cathedral
where put down in any part of it some of the cathedral would still be above
water. This shallowness is in some ways an advantage. Shallow water is warmer
than deep water and helps to keep shores from extreme cold. It is, too, the
home of millions of fish.coastline is very indented. This indentation gives a
good supply of splendid harbours for ships. On the north-west the coasts are
broken by high rocky cliffs. This is especially noticeable in north-west
Scotland where you have long winding inlets and a great many slands.
. Relief
In Scotland you have 3 distinct regions. There is the
Highlands, then the central plain of Lowlands, finally there are the southern
uplands with their gently rounded hills where the ship wander.England and Wales
all the high land is in the west and north-west. The south-eastern plain
reaches the west coast only at one or two places - at the Bristol Channel and
by the mouths of the rivers Dee and Mersey.the north you find the Cheviots (a
wool producing country in Britain), separating England from Scotland, the
Pennines going down England like a backbone and the Cumbrian mountains of the
Lake District, one of the loveliest and wettest parts of England. In the West
are Cambrian mountains which occupy the greater part of Wales. The
south-eastern part of England is a low-lying land with gentle hills and coast
which is regular in outline, sandy or muddy, with occasional chalk cliffs, and
inland a lovely pattern of green and gold - for most of England's wheat is
grown here - and brown plough land with pleasant farms and cottages in their
midst. Its rich brown soil is deeply cultivated - much of it is under wheat;
fruit-growing is extensively carried on. A quarter of the sugar used in the
country comes from sugar beet grown there, but the most important crop is
potatoes.position of the mountains naturally determined the direction and
length of the rivers, except the Severn and Clyde, flow into the North Sea. The
rivers of Britain are of no great value as waterways - the longest, the Thames,
is a little over 200 miles - and few of them are navigable except near the
mouth for anything but the smaller vessels. In the estuaries of the Thames, Mersey,
Tyne, Clyde, Tay, Forth, and Bristol Avon are some of the greatest ports.
4. Climate
The climate of the United Kingdom is classified as a
mid-latitude oceanic climate, with warm summers, cool winters and plentiful precipitation
throughout the year. The principal factors that influence the country's climate
include its northerly latitude, the close proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, and
the warming of the surrounding waters by the Gulf Stream. The weather can be
notoriously changeable from one day to the next but temperature variations
throughout the year are relatively small.average total annual sunshine in the
United Kingdom is 1339.7 hours, which is just under 30% of the maximum
possible. The south coast of England often has the clearest skies because
cumulus cloud formation generally takes place over land, and prevailing winds
from the south-west keep this cloud from forming overhead. The counties of
Dorset, Hampshire, Sussex and Kent have annual average totals of around 1,750
hours of sunshine a year. Northern, western and mountainous areas are generally
the cloudiest areas of the UK, with some mountainous areas receiving less than
1,000 hours of sunshine a year.hours of sunshine in winter range from 38-108
hours in some mountainous areas and western Scotland, up to 217 hours in the
south and east of England; while average hours of sunshine in summer range from
294-420 hours in northern Scotland and Northern Ireland, to 592-726 hours in
southern English coastal counties. The most sunshine recorded in one month was
383.9 hours at Eastbourne (East Sussex) in July 1911.amounts can vary greatly
across the United Kingdom and generally the further west and the higher the
elevation, the greater the rainfall. The Lake District is one of the wettest
places in the country with an average annual rainfall total that exceeds 2000
mm. The mountains of Wales, Scotland, the Pennines and the moors of the
south-west of England are the wettest parts of the country, and in some of
these places up to and exceeding 5000 mm of rain falls annually, making these
locations some of the wettest in Europe.of England are surprisingly dry, which
is contrary to the stereotypical view-London receives less rain annually than
Rome, Sydney or New York. In East Anglia it typically rains on about 113 days
per year. Most of the south, south-east and East Anglia receive less than 700
mm of rain per year. The English counties of Essex and Cambridgeshire are
amongst the driest in the UK, with an average annual rainfall of around 600 mm.
In some years rainfall totals in Essex can be below 450 mm-less than the
average annual rainfall in Jerusalem and Beirut.of the United Kingdom have had
severe drought problems in recent years, particularly in the south-east of England,
which experienced the driest period on record in 2006. Fires broke out in many
areas, even across the normally damp higher ground of north-west England and
Wales. The landscape in much of England and east Wales became very parched,
even near the coast; water restrictions were in place in some areas.2006 was
the hottest month on record for the United Kingdom and much of Europe, however
England has had warmer spells of 31 days which did not coincide with a calendar
month-in 1976 and 1995. As well as low rainfall, drought problems were made
worse by the fact that the driest parts of the England also have the highest
population density, and therefore highest water consumption. The drought
problems ended in the period from October 2006 to January 2007, which had well
above average rainfall.the United Kingdom has cool to mild winters and warm
summers with moderate variation in temperature throughout the year. In England
the average annual temperature varies from 8.5 °C in the north to 11 °C in the
south, but over the higher ground this can be several degrees lower. This small
variation in temperature is to a large extent due to the moderating effect the
Atlantic ocean has-water has a much greater specific heat capacity than air
tends to heat and cool slowly throughout the year. This has a warming influence
on coastal areas in winter and a cooling influence in summer.floors of inland
valleys away from warming influence of the sea can be particularly cold as
cold, dense air drains into them. A temperature of −26.1 °C was recorded
under such conditions at Edgmond in Shropshire on 10 January 1982, the coldest
temperature recorded in England and Wales. The following day the coldest
maximum temperature in England, at −11.3 °C, was recorded at the same
site.average the warmest winter temperatures occur on the south and west
coasts, Temperatures in these areas can rise to 15 °C in winter on rare
occasions This is a particularly unusual event in northern Scotland, mainly
Aberdeenshire, where these high temperatures can occur in midwinter with just a
couple of hours of sunlight.is on average the warmest month, and the highest
temperatures tend to occur away from the Atlantic in southern, eastern and
central England, where summer temperatures can rise above 30 °C. It soared to
38.5 °C in Kent in the summer of 2003, the highest temperature ever recorded in
the United Kingdom.
saw unprecedented warmth, with many more records being
broken. While the year started off around average, and even fell well below
average in early-March, the period from mid-April onwards saw a lack of any
cooler than average weather. Early-May and June saw temperatures 10-12 °C above
average at times. July was the hottest month on record, with records stretching
back hundreds of years; the highest maximum temperature for July was also
broken in 2006. September was the warmest September on record and October was
one of the warmest on record. November was also extremely mild, making it the
warmest Autumn on record by some margin. May to October was also the warmest
consecutive six months on record.the United Kingdom is not particularly noted
for extreme weather, it does occur, and conditions have been known to reach
extreme levels on occasions.have been occurrences of severe flash floods caused
by intense rainfall, the most severe was the Lynmouth disaster of 1952 in which
34 people died and 38 houses and buildings were completely destroyed. In the
summer of 2004, a severe flash flood devastated the town of Boscastle in
Cornwall.
britain economic education culture
Lecture 2.
Historical outline of the UK
1. The
earliest period. The first inhabitants on the territory of the British Isles.
The Celts
In prehistoric times Britain was joined to the rest of the
continent. The first human inhabitants and many of the animal inhabitants came
there over the dry land. Towards the end of the ice age the mighty prehistoric
river which joined the present-day Thames with the Rhine overwhelmed the land
joining Britain to the continent and formed the present-day English Channel.
Immediately after its formation the Channel was too stormy and full of strong
currents. That's why the hunters of the new-stone age crossed the sea to
Britain to the west off the Channel and settles along the western shores in
their search for food.3 thousand years B.C. many parts of Europe in including
the British Isle were inhabited by a people, who came to be known as the
Iberians. Some of their descendants are still found in the north of Spain. They
used stone weapons and tools. Soon after 2000 B.C. a new race of Alpine stock
came from the east of Europe. This time they entered the country from the
south-east and east. According to their essential features of their pottery
they are known as Beakeafolk.the period from the 6th to the 3d
century B.C., a people called the Celts spread across Europe from the east to
the west. More than one Celtic tribe invaded Britain. From time to time one
Celtic tribe was attacked and overcome by other tribes. Celtic tribes called
the Picts came to the mountains on the North, some picts as well as tribes of
Scots crossed over to Ireland and settled there.on some Scots returned to the
larger island and came in such large numbers that the whole territory was named
Scotland after them. The most powerful and civilized tribe was the tribe of
Britons, and as a result the southern half of the island which was inhabited by
them was named Britain after them. The Celts were very unusual people. They
were tall, with long fair hair, blue eyes, they wore moustaches. They could use
make things from copper, tin and iron. They kept large herds of cattle and
sheep which formed their chief wealth. The Briton's clothing was made of wool,
woven in many colours while the other Celts wore skins.Celts were very good
warriors. Not only a man but a woman could become a good warrior. The Celts
could frighten an enemy not only by their war art, but by their severe look as
well. They used to paint their hair, arms and legs red and blue in the time of
war. As we've already mentioned the Celts lived in tribes. A chief was at the
head of the tribe. In some places chiefs were called kings; usually the best
and the most respectable warrior became a chief. The Celts were pagans. They
believed in many gods. They thought rivers, lakes trees to be rules by beings
like themselves, only much more powerful. They sacrificed not only animals but
also human beings. The Celts believed in another life after death. They were
taught by priests called druids that their souls passed after death from one
body to another.druids were very important and powerful people. The Celts
believed in their magic power and also believed that the druids were able to
foretell the future. They were often called upon to settle disputes or solve
family problems, even to begin or to stop warfare. There are some mysterious
places on the territory of Britain connected with that period. The most famous
one is Stonehenge, upright stones standing in groups of twos, 8,5 meters high,
with flat stones on the top.are many versions to explain the origin of this
place. According to one version Stonehenge used to be an ancient observatory,
but another version tells that this place was connected with the religion of
druids.
. The Roman conquest
While the Celts were still living in tribes, the Romans were
the most powerful people in the world. The Roman Empire was one of the
strongest in the history and its society included slaves and slave-owners. The
Romans were more civilized than the Celts and they were city-dwellers.Romans
conquered all the countries around the Mediterranean Sea. Julius Caesar who was
the head of the Roman Army was sent to conquer Gaul (France). In the course of
his campaigns Caesar reached the Channel and that was the first time when the
Romans saw the white cliffs of the Br. Isles.55 B.C. a Roman Army of 10000 men
crossed the Channel to invade Britain. As the Celts saw the ships approaching
they rushed to attack the army in the sea. They also fought them on foot and in
chariots with loud shouts, red hair and moustaches, the arms legs painted blue.
The well-armed Romans, being frightened had to return to Gaul. In the next
year, 54 B.C. Julius Caesar came to Britain again. This time the army was much
larger: 25000 men. The Romans were well-armed and trained. In spite of the fact
that the Celts were very brave they were not strong enough to drive the Romans
off. So, the Celts were defeated in several battles. Some of the chiefs
submitted and promised to pay tribute to Rome.Julius Caesar came to Britain
twice in the course of two years, he was not able to conquer it. The real
conquest of the country began many years after Caesar's visits to the island.43
A.D. a Roman Army invaded Britain and conquered the South-East. Other parts of
the country were taken from time to time during the next 40 years. The Celts
fought fiercely against the Romans and the Romans never managed to become
masters of the whole territory. They didn't manage to invade the Scottish
Highlands. From time to time the Picts managed to raid the Roman part of the
island, burn their villages and drive off their cattle and sheep.a result of
the conquest there was a great influence of Roman civilization over the British
Isles. The Romans were city-dwellers, and having conquered Britain they started
building towns, villas, public baths. They built strong fortified walls to
protect themselves from the attacks of the natives. Straight roads were built
so that the legions might march quickly, whenever and wherever they were
needed. In the course of time the Roman way of life was adopted by the chiefs
and their surroundings. The Latin language penetrated into the speech of the
natives. The words the Romans left in English are for the most part the names
of the things which they taught the Celts. e.g.Lat> strata> portus>
vallumnames of many modern E. towns are of Latin origin too. The fortified
Roman towns were called "castra" = "camps". This word can
be found in such names as: Chester, Winchester, Manchester, Lancaster,
Gloucester., Gloucester, Lincoln and London became the chief Roman towns which
grew up as markets and centres of administration. London became a centre of
trade both by land and river.Romans were great builders and we may find ruins
of their work all over Britain. Unfortunately a great part of their work
perished because of the Anglo-Saxons who came after the Romans. The
Anglo-Saxons were country-dwellers and they disliked towns. So, many
magnificent Roman structures were ruined, but still some traces of Roman
constructions are still alive.Romans remained in Britain for about 4 centuries.
In the 3-4th centuries the power of the Roman Empire weakened. In the 5th
century the Romans had to return to their own country to defend the Roman
Empire from the attacks of the barbarian tribes. They didn't return to Britain,
and the Celts were left alone.
. The Anglo-Saxon conquest
After the Romans' leaving the Celts remained independent but
not for long. Germanic tribes, such as the Jutes, the Saxons and the Angles
began to migrate to Britain. At first they only came to plunder, but they returned
again and again and the invasion began. In the 449 the Jutes landed in Kent and
this was the beginning of the conquest. The British natives fought fiercely and
it took the invaders more than a hundred and fifty years to conquer the
country. The final refuge of the Celts was Cornwall and Wales, the northern
part of the island (Scotland), where the Celts were still living in tribes,
and, later on, some independent states were formed. The Celts, of Ireland
remained independent too.the conquest many Celts were killed or taken prisoners
and made slaves, or had to pay tribute to the conquerors.life under new masters
was very hard and differed in many ways from the life under the Romans. The new
comers were country-dwellers. They disliked towns preferring to live in small
villages. So, many roman towns, villas, were destroyed in the course of the
conquest. The majority of the population lived in villages, where most of the
necessities were produced (food, clothing, tools). There was almost no
communication between the villages. There were only muddy tracks between one
village and another one. A person might live in his own village all his life
but without moving anywhere and very often without an idea what was going on in
the world.the end of the 6th century and the beginning of the 7th
century the Saxons formed a number of kingdoms: Sussex (the land of the south
Saxons), Wessex (the land of the West Saxons), and Essex (the land of the East
Saxons). In the north the Angles founded Northumbria. These kingdoms were very
hostile to one another. Looking at the map we may find names of E. towns ending
in 'ton' (a Saxon word, means 'hedge' or a place surrounded by the hedge)..g.
Southampton, Brighton, Preston.
'Burgh' or 'bury' was the Saxon for to 'hide'. There are many
village- and town-names derived from the words: Canterbury, Edinburgh,
Salisbury.Anglo-Saxon 'ham', a form of the word 'home' can also be found in
such name as: Nottingham, Birmingham, Cheltenham.Angles, the Jutes and the
Saxons were closely akin to each other in speech, manners, and way of life and
as a result in a course of time they merged into one people. The name of Jutes
died out and the whole period is usually known as the period of Anglo-Saxon
invasion.Anglo-Saxons made up the majority of the population. Their customs,
religion and language became predominant. They called the Celts 'welsh' which
means 'foreigners' as they could not understand the Celtic language. But
gradually the Celts which were in the minority adopted their customs and
learned to speak their languages. Only the Celts who remained independent in
the West, Scotland and Ireland spoke their native language.the course of time
all the people of Britain were referred to as the English after the Angles and
the new name of England was given to the whole country. Their language was
called the English language.Anglo-Saxons lived in communities. The life wasn't
easy but the strong of the Anglo-Saxons was the arable-farming, a system of 2
or 3 fields. While one field was used, another one was waiting for its turn.
The field was divided into stripes. Each family got stripes of both good and
not very good land. Besides the community possessed forests, rivers, meadows,
lakes, and the thing and the animals which were picked up or caught there might
be used by any member of the community. Tools were usually common; the chiefs
decided when and how to use them, what to grow. The results of the common
labour were equally shared among the members of the community, but the equality
didn't last for long. The signs of inequality could be seen even before the
Anglo-Saxon invasion. Some archeological researches show how rich the tribal
chiefs became in the course of the conquest.the end of the 6th
century the inequality became quite noticeable. In the 7th-9th centuries
the arable land held by families became their private property. Now it could be
inherited, sold, presented or given in turn for debts to another owner.peasants
were losing their land and freedom because of the frequent raids and wars in
the course of which they lost almost everything and had nothing to do but to go
to the landowner to ask for protection. The land then would be given back to
them but they were no owners of their land, they held it only and in return
they had to cultivate the lord's field and give him a part of their harvest and
promise to follow him in a battle. Besides, the Anglo-Saxon nobles began to
seize the land of the free communities to make the free peasants work for
them., in the 7th-8th centuries feudal relations were beginning to develop,
that is a class of rich landowners and the free peasants, gradually losing
their land and freedom. The Christian church also influenced the growth of the
new-feudal relations. The conversion of Anglo-Saxons to Christianity began at
the end of the 6th century (597) and was over in the 2nd
half of the 7th century. Before this the Angles, Saxons and Jutes
were pagans. They worshipped the sun and the moon, the sea, springs and trees.
Their believes were reflected in many things that surrounded them..g. the
Anglo-Saxons named the days of the week after their gods:- the Sun's day= the
Moon's day= the day of the god of darkness Tuesco= the day of the god of war
Woden= the day of the god of thunder Thor= the day of the goddess of peace and
plenty Freya= the day of a Roman god Saturnhas developed in a primitive
Anglo-Saxon society. With the beginning of feudal relations kings and lords
needed a new religion, teaching the peasants obedience and showing that this
order of society in which the peasants had to work for their master had been
established by god.religion that was to serve the interests of the rich
Anglo-Saxons was Christianity. Besides teaching people some moral qualities, it
promised them a happy life after death. Many churches and monasteries were
built. There were held services, books were brought and the Latin language was
heard again. People became more educated. The Christian religion had a
tremendous influence over men's minds and actions. It controlled the most
important events of their life: baptism, marriage and burial. The churchmen who
became rich landowners themselves did their utmost to preach up the king, to
justify the exploitation of the peasants and the power of the great landlords
over them.
centuries later the Danes began to disturb the country. First
they came in spring and summer only to plunder but they returned home for the
winter. Every year they went to different places. Thus all the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms faced the same dangerous enemy, but nobody could catch them, as there
were no sea guards and other kinds of protection. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were
too busy struggling against each other. But before the danger of the new
invasion the problem of the unification came urgent. The first raids on Britain
began in 793. In a course of time the Danes managed to take York and then the
whole Yorkshire and East Anglia. At last all England north of the Thames was in
their hands. It was not easy to stop such an enemy but Wessex was not ready to
gield. Under the reign of King Alfred (871-899) the small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
were united.managed to raise an army and to stop the offensive of the Danes. He
made new rules for the army, in which every free man had to serve and to come
provided with the proper weapons. During the reign of Alfred the Great the
first British Navy was built and a war fleet of ships larger and faster than
those of the Danes protected the island. Besides, many places that could be
attacked by the enemy were fortified. As a result the Anglo-Saxons won several
victories over the Danes. At the end of the 9th century new Danish
attacks were made but there were beaten off.time of peace Alfred took measures
to improve the laws in the interests of the landlords and to raise the standard
of culture among them. He invited people from the continent to teach the
Anglo-Saxons different crafts and arts. The churches and the monasteries ruined
by the Danes were rebuilt. Alfred wanted all the priests and the officials to
know Latin (the books and services were in Latin).school was organized in the
palace itself where the sons of the nobles learned to read and write. Alfred
himself taught there. Almost all the books were in Latin at that time and
people couldn't read them. That's why some translations into Anglo-Saxon were
made.offered to begin writing a history of England - known as the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle which was continued for 250 years after Alfred's death. Also under
the supervision of Alfred a Code of English Law was drawn up.
4. Great
Britain after WWII
Winston Churchill again became Prime Minister. His third
government - after the wartime national government and the short caretaker
government of 1945 -lasted until his resignation in 1955. During this period he
renewed what he called the "special relationship" between Britain and
the United States, and engaged himself in the formation of the post-war order.,
he paid more attention to international policy, than to domestic affairs. A
series of foreign policy crises happened because of the continued decline of
British military and imperial prestige and power.
1. Anglo-Iranian Oil Dispute was one of the problems the UK
faced. (In March 1951, the Iranian parliament wanted to nationalise the
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Churchill wanted to undermine the Iranian government
created political and economic blockade of Iran, which led to the coup plots in
the country.)
2. The Mau Mau Rebellion of 1951 in Kenya (the Kenya
Africa Union demanded greater representation and land reform. When these
demands were rejected, more radical elements came in power, Mau Mau rebellion
began. On 17 August 1952, a state of emergency was declared, and British troops
were flown to Kenya to deal with the rebellion. As both sides increased their
attacks, the country moved to full-scale civil war.)
. Malaya Emergency. In Malaysia, a rebellion against
British rule had been in progress since 1948. Churchill chose to use direct
military action against those in rebellion and tried to build an alliance with
those who were not. He approved the creation of fortified villages, a tactic
that became a part of Western military strategy in South-East Asia. (Vietnam
War).
5. The
Suez Canal conflict
In April 1955, Churchill finally retired, and Sir Anthony
Eden became Prime Minister. Eden was a very popular figure, as a result of his
long wartime service and also his famous good looks and charm. He immediately
called a general election, at which the Conservative party returned in power.
But Sir Anthony had little experience in economic matters and concentrated
largely on foreign policy, forming a close alliance with U.S. President Dwight
Eisenhower.alliance was not a success which was proved during the Suez Canal
conflict. In 1956 Sir Anthony, together with France, tried to prevent the
nationalising of the Suez Canal, which had been owned since the 19th century by
Britain and France.October 1956, after months of negotiation Britain, France
and Israel, invaded Egypt and occupied the Suez Canal Zone. But Eisenhower
strongly opposed the invasion. The U.S. President was for decolonisation,
because it would liberate colonies, strengthen U.S. interests, and make other
Arab and African leaders more sympathetic to the United States. Also, the
Soviet Union threatened to drop nuclear bombs on Paris or London unless Britain
and France withdrew. Eisenhower feared another global war. When the UK asked
for financial help, Eisenhower stated that Britain would have to pull-out
before the US would provide any more financial aid to Britain. Eden was forced
to withdraw. The Suez Crisis is widely taken as marking the end of Britain
(along with France) as a World power.
6. Britain in 1957 - 1979
Harold
Macmillan.
Eden’s Foreign Secretary Harold Macmillan became Prime
Minister in January 1957. The economy was his prime concern. Macmillan also
took close control of foreign policy. He worked to create better relationship
with the USA after Suez conflict, and his wartime friendship with Dwight D.
Eisenhower was useful. The better relationship remained after the John F. Kennedy
became President. During Macmillan office many colonies became free. His
"wind of change" speech (February 1960) indicated his policy. Ghana
and Malaya were granted independence in 1957, Nigeria in 1960 and Kenya in
1963. However in the Middle East Macmillan wanted Britain to remain a force -
he invaded Iraq in 1958 and 1960, and becoming involved in Oman.
Harold
Wilson and Edward Heath
In 1964, Labour party came into power with Harold Wilson as
Prime Minister. During his first period of office, Wilson's government set up
the Open University which is regarded as his greatest achievement. Overseas,
Wilson was troubled by crises in several of Britain's former colonies,
especially Rhodesia and South Africa. Wilson gave diplomatic support but
resisted pressure for military support to the United States in the Vietnam
War.premiership of his successor Sir Edward Heath was the bloodiest in the
history of the Northern Ireland Troubles. He was prime minister at the time of
Bloody Sunday in 1972 when 14 unarmed men were killed by British soldiers
during an illegal march in Londonderry City.'s major achievement as prime
minister was to take Britain into the European Economic Community in 1973.
However great inflation led him into confrontation with some of the most powerful
trade unions, and because of the energy shortages the country's industry worked
a three-day week to conserve power.he, nor his successors labour PM’s were able
to fight the economic crisis in the country. The Conservatives ran a campaign
on the slogan "Labour isn't working." As expected, Margaret Thatcher
won the election.
7. Margaret Thatcher
Thatcher formed a government on May 4, 1979, promising to
reverse the UK's economic decline and to reduce the role of the state in the
economy.economic policy, Thatcher started increased interest rates to drive
down the money supply. Value added tax (VAT) rose sharply to 15% and the
inflation also rose. These moves hit businesses, especially in the
manufacturing sector, and unemployment quickly passed two million. Unemployment
continued to rise, peaking at a figure of more than 3.2 million.defense budget
was cut, the Falkland Islands defense was disregarded, and immigration reform
was passed (the citizens of the few remaining British colonies did not have the
same rights as the citizens of the UK) - all this was the most difficult
foreign policy decision of Thatcher's era.Argentina, an unstable military junta
was in power and on April 2, 1982, it invaded the Falkland Islands, the only
invasion of a British territory since World War II. Thatcher sent a naval task
force to recapture the Islands. The ensuing military campaign was successful,
resulting in a wave of patriotic enthusiasm for her personally. Additionally,
Thatcher's 'Right to Buy' policy, when people were permitted to buy their homes
at a discount did much to increase her government's popularity in working-class
areas.aimed at reducing the power of the trade unions. Several unions went on
strikes that were aimed at damaging her politically. The most significant of
these was carried out by the National Union of Mineworkers. However, Thatcher
had made preparations long in advance for an NUM strike by building up coal
stocks, and there were no cuts in electric power, unlike 1972.
(Police tactics during the strike concerned civil
libertarians: stopping suspected strike sympathisers travelling towards
coalfields when they were still long distances from them, phone tapping, and a
violent battle with mass pickets at Orgreave. But images of massed militant miners
using violence to prevent other miners from working, along with the fact that
(illegally under a recent Act) the NUM had not held a ballot to approve strike
action, swung public opinion against the strike).Miners' Strike lasted a full
year, 1984-85, before of half the miners went back to work and the NUM
leadership gave in without a deal. This failed political strike marked a
turning point in UK politics: no longer could militant unions remove a
democratically elected government.Thatcher, the Hong Kong (the only remaining
British territory in Asia) was transferred to China in 1997.the early morning
of October 12, 1984, Thatcher escaped death (on the day before her 59th
birthday) from the bomb placed by the Irish Republican Army in Brighton's
Grand Hotel during the Conservative Party conference. Five people died in the
attack. Thatcher insisted that the conference open on time the next day and
made her speech as planned.November 15, 1985, Thatcher signed the Hillsborough
Anglo-Irish Agreement, the first acknowledgement by a British government that
the Republic of Ireland had an important role to play in Northern Ireland. But
it did little to reduce IRA violence.'s political and economic philosophy
emphasised free markets and entrepreneurialism. After the 1983 election, the
Government became sold off most of the large utilities which had been in public
ownership since the late 1940s. The policy of privatisation has become
synonymous with Thatcherism.the Cold War, Mrs Thatcher supported Ronald
Reagan's policies against the Soviets. US forces were permitted by Mrs.
Thatcher to station nuclear cruise missiles at British bases, arousing mass
protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. However, she later was the
first Western leader to respond warmly to the rise of reformist Soviet leader
Mikhail Gorbachev, declaring she liked him and "We can do business
together" after a meeting three months before he came to power in
1985.supported the US bombing raid on Libya from bases in the UK in 1986 when
other NATO allies did not.winning the 1987 general election, on the economic
boom and against an anti-nuclear Labour opposition, she became the longest
serving Prime Minister of the UK since Lord Liverpool (1812-1827), and first to
win three successive elections since Lord Palmerston in 1865.UK newspapers
supported her - with the exception of The Daily Mirror and The Guardian - and
were rewarded with regular press briefings by her press secretary. She was
known as "Maggie" in the tabloids, which inspired the well-known
"Maggie Out!" protest song, sung throughout that period by some of
her opponents. Her unpopularity on the left is evident from the lyrics of
several contemporary popular songs: "Stand Down Margaret",
"Tramp the Dirt Down", and "Mother Knows Best".the late 1980s,
Thatcher, a former chemist, became concerned with environmental issues. In
1988, she made a major speech accepting the problems of global warming, ozone
depletion and acid rain. In 1990, she opened the Hadley Centre for climate
prediction and research.she had supported British membership, Thatcher believed
that the role of the EC should be limited to free trade and effective
competition, and feared that new EC regulations would reverse the changes she
was making in the UK.. She was specifically against Economic and Monetary
Union, through which a single currency would replace national currencies, and
for which the EC was making preparations.'s popularity once again declined in
1989 due to the introduction of the Poll Tax. (a tax paid as the same sum of money
by every individual resident, with only limited discounts for low earners.) A
large London demonstration against the poll tax on March 31, 1990 - the day
before it was introduced in England and Wales - turned into a riot. Millions of
people resisted paying the tax. Mrs Thatcher refused to compromise, or change
the tax, and its unpopularity was a major factor in Thatcher's downfall.
8. Tony Blair
Tony Blair became Prime Minister in 1997 after the victory
over the Conservative Party. He served as the Prime Minister of the UK from 2
May 1997 to 27 June 2007, the Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007.
With victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005, Blair was the Labour Party's
longest-serving prime minister, the only person to lead the party to three consecutive
general election victories. Under the title of New Labour, he promised economic
and social reform. Early policies of the Blair government included the minimum
wage and university tuition fees. Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown also
gave the Bank of England the power to set the base rate of interest
autonomously.domestic government policy, Blair significantly increased public
spending on health and education while also introducing controversial
market-based reforms in these areas. Blair has raised taxes; introduced some
new employment rights; introduced significant constitutional reforms (which
remain incomplete and controversial); promoted new rights for gay people in the
Civil Partnership Act 2004; and signed treaties integrating Britain more
closely with the EU, and introduced tough anti-terrorism and identity card
legislation.contribution towards assisting the Northern Ireland Peace Process
by helping to negotiate the Good Friday Agreement after 30 years of
conflict was widely recognised.Blair has been criticised for his alliance with
U.S. President George W. Bush and his policies in the Middle East, including
the Iraq War, the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict and the Israeli-Palestinian
conflict. Blair is also criticised for an alleged tendency to spin important
information in a way that can be misleading. Blair is the first ever Prime
Minister of the UK to have been formally questioned by police officers whilst
in office, although he was not under caution when interviewed.also regard Tony
Blair as having eroded civil liberties and increased social authoritarianism,
by increasing police powers, in the form of more arrestable offences, DNA
recording. His style was sometimes criticised as not that of a prime minister
and head of government, which he was, but of a president and head of state,
which he was not.evaluations of Blair's skills as a parliamentarian differ, he
is acknowledged to be a highly skillful media performer in other contexts,
appearing modern, charismatic, informal and articulate. Perhaps his best known
television appearance was his tribute to Diana, Princess of Wales on the
morning of her death in August 1997, in which he famously described her as
"the People's Princess".10 May 2007, Blair announced during a speech
his intention to resign as both Labour Party leader and Prime Minister the
following June. On June 24 he formally handed over the leadership of the Labour
Party to Gordon Brown at a special party conference in Manchester. Blair handed
in his resignation as Prime Minister of the UK to the Queen on 27 June 2007,
his successor Gordon Brown assumed office the same afternoon. He also resigned
his seat in the House of Commons.
9. Brown as Prime Minister
Brown
became the Prime Minister of the UK on 27 June 2007. Like all Prime Ministers.
Brown has proposed to give some traditional powers of a Prime Minister to
Parliament, such as the power to declare war ,he wants parliament to have the
right to ratify treaties and have more oversight into the intelligence
services. He has also proposed moving some powers from Parliament to citizens,
including the right to form "citizen's juries" and to petition
Parliament for new laws.
During his Labour leadership campaign, Brown proposed some
policy initiatives:
· End to corruption. Following the cash for honours
scandal, Brown emphasised cracking down on corruption.
· Constitutional reform Brown has not stated if he
proposes a U.S.-style written constitution - something the UK has never had. He
said in a speech that he wants a “better constitution” that is “clear about the
rights and responsibilities of being a citizen in Britain today.’ Brown has
said he will give Parliament the final say on whether British troops are sent
into action in future.
· Housing. House planning restrictions
are likely to be relaxed. Brown said he wants to release more land and ease
access to ownership with shared equity schemes. He backed a proposal to build
five new eco-towns, each housing between 10,000 and 20,000 homeowners - up to
100,000 new homes in total.
· Health. Brown intends to have
doctors' surgeries open at the weekends, and GPs on call in the evenings. Brown
stated that the NHS was his "top
priority", yet he had just cut the capital budget of the English NHS from
£6.2bn to £4.2bn.
Foreign policy. Brown remains committed to the Iraq War, but
said in a speech in May 2007 that he would "learn the lessons" from
the mistakes made in Iraq.
"We will not allow people to separate us from the United
States of America in dealing with the common challenges that we face around the
world. I think people have got to remember that the relationship between
Britain and America and between a British prime minister and an American
president is built on the things that we share, the same enduring values about
the importance of liberty, opportunity, the dignity of the individual. I will
continue to work, as Tony Blair did, very closely with the American
administration."
Lecture 3.
Population
. Natural growth
people who now inhabit the British Isles are descended mainly
from the people who inhabited them nearly 9 cent ago. The English nation was
formed as a result of the amalgamation of the native population of the Br.
Isles with the invaders.
Located as they are on a group of islands close to
Continental Europe, the lands now constituting the United Kingdom have been
subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from Scandinavia and the
continent, including Roman occupation for several centuries. Present day
Britons are descended mainly from the varied ethnic stocks that settled there
before the eleventh century. The pre-Celtic, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and
Norse influences were blended on Great Britain under the Normans, Scandinavian
Vikings who had lived in Northern France. Between the various constituent
countries, there has been sufficient internal migration to mix the population.
Today in England, Wales. Scotland and N. Ireland, English is
the language predominately spoken. In Wales, however. Welsh, a form of British
Celtic, is spoken by some 20 per cent of the population. In Scotland over 80000
people speak the Scottish form of Gaelic A few families in N. Ireland still
speak the Irish form of Gaeliccenturies the British governments promoted the
spread of English at the expense of other languages. Moreover, at times it was
strictly forbidden to study any of the languages of the minorities living on
the British Isles. Today some of the country's ethnic minorities formed as a
result of recent immigration have their own languages, normally as well as
English.of the people have been taken regularly every 10 years since 1801,
except that there was no census in 1941 because of the Second World War. It is
believed that at the end of the 11th century the population of GB was about 2
mil, while at the end of the 17th century the population was about 6,5 mil. The
main factor in this gradual growth of population was a slow natural increase,
with high death rates and, in particular, very high infant and maternal
mortality.most extensive growth of the population of GB took place in the 19th
century, when the number pf inhabitants increased from 9 mil to 38
mil.birth-rates have fallen since the mid - 1960s. The main reason is
associated with the social conditions in the country: the growth of
unemployment, deterioration of the living standards, social tension, expensive
housing.
At the April 2001 UK Census, the United Kingdom's population
was 58,789,194, the third-largest in the European Union (behind Germany and
France) and the twenty-first largest in the world. This had been estimated up
to 59,834,300 by the Office for National Statistics in 2004. Two years later it
had increased to 60.2 million, largely from net immigration, but also because
of a rising birth rate and increasing life expectancy. Immigration began to play a more
important role in population growth more recently.number of population GB holds
one of the first places among the European countries.English make up 4/5 of the
total population and they inhabit England proper and many of them live in
industrial cities of Scotland, Wales and N. Ireland. The proportion of the
Scotsmen, Welshmen and Irishmen is about 15 %. This group includes foreigners,
too. The inhabitants of Wales, Scotland and N. Ireland have preserved their
culture, originality and languages.population of England is and has been for
centuries, greater than that of all other parts of Britain (England - 48 mil,
Wales - 3 mil, Scotland - 5 mil, N. Ireland -2 mil).are about 6 % more male than
female births every year. Because of the higher mortality of men at all ages,
however, there is a turning point, at about 50 years of age, at which the
number of women exceeds the number of men.country as a whole has a population
density of about 233 people to sqr km, in England proper - 363 people to the
sqr km, in Wales - 137, in Scotland - 66, in N. Ireland - 112 (1989). Its overall population
density is one of the highest in the world.most highly populated regions are the
industrial districts: South-East England and North- East England. About a quarter of the
population lives in England's prosperous south-east and is predominantly urban
and suburban, with an estimated 7,517,700 in the capital of London.
. Migration
Traditionally Britain has a net outflow of people to the rest
of the world. During the 100 years, from 1836 to 1936 about 11 mil people left
the British Isles. This mass migration especially in the 19th century was a
movement of ruined peasants, the unemployed-people who hoped to find new
opportunities and happiness on new territories. The immigrants went mainly to
North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, to other lands in Asia and
Africa, where they settled, spreading the economic, social, political and
cultural influence of GB, as well as the English language, which became the
state language of many countries.were periods when on the contrary the country
experienced a large influx of people.was in the 1930s when there was a
considerable flow of refugees from continental Europe as a result of fascist
persecution, and in the late 1950s and early 1960s mainly the result of a large
influx of people from the West Indies and the Indian sub-continent. After the
1950s and in the 1960s considerable numbers of people entered Britain from
Commonwealth countries, especially from the West Indies, Asia and Africa and
settled permanently in the country. Today in Britain there are sizeable groups
of Americans, Australians, Chinese and various European communities such as
Greek, Turkish, Italians and Spaniards living in Britain.
As of 2001, 7.9% of the UK's population identified themselves
as an 'ethnic minority'. The United Kingdom has amongst the highest immigration
rates in Europe, along with Italy and Spain it is now believed that the percentage
of 'ethnic minorities' is some 9% of the total UK population. In some UK cities
the percentage of 'minority groups' is large but is still less than half, for
example; Birmingham (UK's 2nd largest city) has 29.6%, Leicester 36%. The
latest figures (for 2004) show a record level of immigration, with net
migration to the UK of 223,000.latest wave of immigration to hit the UK began
in May 2004 when the European Union was expanded. From May 2004 to June 2006,
around 600,000 people from Central and Eastern Europe emigrated to the UK to
work, although this figure is for arrivals only and therefore does not take
account of people leaving, hence net migration is likely to be lower. In 2004
net migration from EU states stood at 74,000. Along with this, there is a large
number of Indians, mainly from northern India, which make up about 2.0% of the
population.
. Distribution
As regards the proportion of urban population Britain
probably holds the first place in the world. Over 90 % of its population live
in towns. In Britain there are 91 towns with the population of over 100
thousand people. About one third of the country's population is concentrated in
the town districts, which comprise numerous merged towns and are called
conurbations. They are: Greater London, Central Clydeside, Merseyside,
South-East Lancashire, Tyneside, the West Midlands and West Yorkshire.general
about half the population lives in a belt across England with South Lancashire
and west Yorkshire at one end, and the London area at the other, having the
industrialized Midlands at its centre.areas with large population are: the
central lowlands of Scotland; north-east England from north of the river Tyne
down to the river Tees; south-west Wales; the Bristol area; and the English
Channel coast from Poole, in Dorset, eastwards. Rural settlements of GB differ
from the traditional villages situated in other countries. They are located not
far from towns and resemble their suburbs. The 1980s witnessed a steady growth
of mass unemployment and deterioration of the living standards of the people.
The number of poor people in the country reached about 12 mln.most notable
trend in the employment pattern during the last years has been the growth of
people employed in services. This is a typical feature which is observed in all
developed countries.
. Ethnic
identity
National ('ethnic') loyalties can be strong among the people
in Britain whose ancestors were not English. (Scottish, Welsh or Irish) They
may even join one of the sporting and social clubs for these nations that
promote national folk music, organize parties on special national days and
promote doing things differently from the English.Scotland several important
aspects of public life are organized and differently from the rest of Britain -
education, law and religion. The Scottish way of speaking English is very
distinctive. A modern form of the dialect known as Scots has many features
which are different from other forms of English and can’t usually be understood
by people who aren’t Scottish.people of Wales don’t differ much in everyday
life. The organization of public life is similar to that in England. Many
people in Wales even don’t consider themselves to be especially Welsh at all.
In the 19th century large numbers of Scottish, Irish and English people went to
find work there, and today many English people still live in Wales or have
holiday houses there. However, there is one important symbol of Welsh identity
- the Welsh language. Everybody in Wales can speak English, but it isn’t
everybody's first language. For about 20% of the population (more than half a
million people), the mother-tongue is Welsh. Thanks to many campaigns, the
language receives a lot of public support. All children in Wales learn it at
school there are many local newspapers in Welsh, there is a Welsh television
channel and nearly all public notices and signs are written in both Welsh and
English.English people usually make no distinction in their minds between
'English' and 'British'. For example, at international football or rugby
matches, when the players stand to attention to hear their national anthems,
the Scottish, Irish and Welsh have their own songs, while the English one is
just 'God Save the Queen' - the same as the British national anthem.of Northern
Ireland can be divided into 2 groups: Protestants who came from England and
Scotland who want to remain in the UK and the native Irish Catholics who want
to become a pert of the Irish republic. These groups live separately in
different housing estates, listen to different radio and TV programmes, go to
different doctors, read different newspapers and so on.great wave of
immigration from the Caribbean and south Asia took place between 1950 and 1965.
These immigrants brought with them different languages, different religions (Hindu
and Muslim) and everyday habits and attitudes. As they usually married among
themselves, these habits and customs have been preserved.
5.
Geographic Identity
Place of birth is not very important nowadays. People are
just too mobile and very few live in the same place all their lives. There is
quite a lot of local pride, and people find many opportunities to express it.
This pride arises because people are happy to live in what they consider to be
a nice place and often when they’re fighting to preserve it.everybody has a
spoken accent that identifies them as coming from a particular large city or
region. In some cases there is quite a strong sense of identification.
Liverpudlians (from Liverpool), Mancunians (from Manchester), Geordies (from
the Newcastle area) and Cockneys (from London) are often proud to be known by
these names.English people see themselves as either 'northerners' or
'southerners'. The fact that the south is on the whole richer than the north,
and the domination of the media by the affairs of London and the south-east,
leads to resentment in the north. this reinforces the pride in their northern
roots felt by many northerners, who, stereotypically, see themselves as
tougher, more honest and warmer-hearted than the soft, hypocritical and
unfriendly southerners. To people in the south, the stereotypical northerner
(who is usually male) is rather ignorant and uncultured and interested only and
beer-drinking
6. Being
British
British people, although many of them feel proud to be British,
aren’t normally actively patriotic. They often feel uncomfortable if, in
conversation with somebody from another country, that person refers to 'you'
where 'you' means Britain or the British government. They are individualistic
and do not like to feel that they are personally representing their country.the
last quarter of the twentieth century there was a dramatic and severe loss of
confidence in British public institutions. Nearly one third of the people
questioned in an opinion poll in the early 1990s said that they could think of
nothing about Britain to be proud of. In addition, almost half said that they
would emigrate if they. This decrease in confidence was accompanied by a change
in the previous rather patronizing attitude to foreigners and foreign ways. In
the days of empire, foreigners were often considered amusing, even interesting,
but not really to be taken seriously. These days, many foreign ways of doing
things are admired and there is a greater openness to foreign influences.with
this patriotism often takes a rather defensive form. The British keep
distinctive ways of doing things, such as driving on the left and using
different systems of measurement.British people know remarkably little about
Europe and who lives there. They continue to be very bad about learning other
peoples' languages. Fluency in any European language other than English is
generally regarded as exotic. But there is nothing defensive or deliberate
about this attitude. The British do not refuse to speak other languages. They
are just lazy.
7. Family
In comparison with most other places in the world, family is
less important in Britain, especially in England. Families are rather nuclear
than extended, except among some racial minorities. It’s unusual for adults of
different generations within the family to live together. The average number of
people living in each household in Britain is lower than in most other European
countries. The proportion of elderly people living alone is similarly
highfamily events such as weddings, births and funerals aren’t automatically
accompanied by large gatherings of people. It is still common to appoint people
to certain roles on such occasions, such as 'best man' at a wedding, or
godmother and godfather when a child is born. But for most people these
appointments don’t imply lifelong responsibility. In fact, family gatherings of
any kind beyond the household unit are rare. For most people, they are confined
to the Christmas period.the stereotyped nuclear family of father, mother and
children is becoming less common. Britain has a higher rate of divorce than
anywhere else in Europe except Denmark and the proportion of children born
outside marriage has risen dramatically and is also one of the highest (about a
third of all births). However, these trends do not necessarily mean that the
nuclear family is disappearing. Divorces have increased, but the majority of
marriages in Britain (about 55%) do not break down. In addition, it is notable
that about three-quarters of all births outside marriage are officially
registered by both parents and more than half of the children concerned are
born to parents who are living together at the time.'s financial situation is
not just the responsibility of the man. But they would still normally
complement the woman, not the man, on a beautifully decorated or well-kept
house. Everyday care of the children is still seen as mainly the woman's
responsibility. Although almost as many women have jobs as men, nearly half of
the jobs done by women are part-time. In fact, the majority of mothers with
children under the age of 12 either have no job or work only during school
hours. Men certainly take a more active domestic role than they did 40 years
ago. Some things, however, never seem to change. A comparison of child-rearing
habits of the 1960s and the 1980s showed that the proportion of men who never
changed a baby's nappy had remained the same (40%)!the public level there are
contradictions. Britain was one of the first European countries to have a woman
Prime Minister and a woman chairperson of debate in its Parliament. However, in
the early nineties, only about 5% of MPs were women, only 20% of lawyers in
Britain were women, less than 10% of accountants were women and there was one
female consultant brain surgeon in the whole country.the 1997 election the
proportion of women MPs increased sharply (to 18%) and nearly every institution
in the country has opened its doors to women now. One of the last to do so was
the Anglican Church, which, after much debate, decided in favour the ordination
of women priests in 1993. However, there are a few institutions which, at the
time of writing, still don't accept female members - for example, the Oxford
and Cambridge Club in London, an association for graduates of these two universities.
8. Class
Historians say that the class system has survived in Britain
because of its flexibility. It has always been possible to buy or marry or even
work your way up, so that your children (and their children) belong to a higher
social class than you do. As a result, the class system has never been swept
away by a revolution.in modern Britain are very conscious of class differences.
They regard it as difficult to become friends with somebody from a different
class. Although most people say they do not approve of class divisions, different
classes have different sets of attitudes and daily habits: they eat different
food at different times of day, they like to talk about different topics using
different styles and accents of English, they enjoy different pastimes and
sports, they have different values about what things in life are most important
and different ideas about the correct way to behave, they go to different kinds
of school.interesting feature of the class structure in Britain is that it is
not just, or even mainly, relative wealth or the appearance of it which
determines someone's class. Of course, wealth is part of it - if you become
wealthy, you can provide the conditions to enable your children to belong to a
higher class than you do. But it is not always possible to guess reliably the
class to which a person belongs by looking at his or her clothes, car or bank
balance. The most obvious and immediate sign comes when a person opens his or
her mouth giving the listener clues to the speaker's attitudes and interests,
both of which are indicative of class.even more indicative than what the
speaker says is the way that he or she says it. The English grammar and
vocabulary which is used in public speaking, radio and television news
broadcasts, books and newspapers and also - unless the lessons are run by
Americans - as a model for learners of English as a foreign language; is known
as 'standard British English'. Most working-class people, however, use lots of
words and grammatical forms in their every day speech which are regarded as
'non-standard'., nearly everybody in the country is capable of using standard
English (or something very close to it) when they judge that the situation
demands it. They are taught to do so at school. The most prestigious accent in
Britain is known as "Received Pronunciation" RP. - English spoken
with an RP accent , 'BBC English' or 'Oxford English' or 'the Queen's
English'.class people in particular are traditionally proud of their class
membership and would not usually wish to be thought of as belonging to any
other class. Interestingly, a survey conducted in the early 1990s showed that
the proportion of people who describe themselves as working class is actually
greater than the proportion whom sociologists would classify as such! This is
one manifestation of a phenomenon known as 'inverted snobbery', whereby
middle-class people try to adopt working-class values and habits. They do this
in the belief that the working classes are in some way ' better' (for example,
more honest) than the middle classes.general, the different classes mix more
readily and easily with each other than they used to. There has been a great
increase in the number of people from working-class origins who are house
owners and who do traditionally middle-class jobs.
Lecture
4. The State System of the
UK
1. Monarchy
The UK is a constitutional monarchy, with executive power
exercised on behalf of the monarch by the prime minister and other cabinet
ministers who head departments. The cabinet, including the prime minister, and
other ministers collectively make up Her Majesty's Government. These ministers
are elected from and are responsible to Parliament, the legislative body, which
is traditionally considered to be "supreme". The UK is one of the few
countries in the world today that does not have a codified constitution,
relying instead on traditional customs and separate pieces of constitutional
law - Acts of Parliament.1215 the nobles forced king John to accept Magna
Charta (The Great Charter) which was aimed to limit some powers of the king. In
1265 Simon de Montfort summoned the first parliament. Since then the so-called
British constitution has evolved as a result of countless Acts of Parliament.
The Bill of Rights (1689) was a major step towards constitutional monarchy and since
then the power of the parliament has grown and the power of the monarch has
weakened.head of state, theoretical and nominal source of executive, judicial
and legislative power in the UK is the British monarch, currently Queen
Elizabeth II. However, sovereignty in the UK no longer rests with the monarch,
since the English Bill of Rights in 1689, which established the principle of
Parliamentary sovereignty.British Sovereign possesses many hypothetical powers,
including the right to choose any British citizen to be her Prime Minister and
the right to call and dissolve Parliament whenever she wishes. However, in
accordance with the current uncodified constitution, the Prime Minister is the
leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, and Parliament is
dissolved at the time suggested by the PM. The monarch retains the ability to
deny giving a bill Royal Assent, although in modern times this becomes
increasingly more unlikely, as it would cause a constitutional crisis. Queen
Anne was the last monarch to exercise this power, which she did on 11 March
1708 with regard to a bill "for the settling of Militia in Scotland".
Other royal powers called royal prerogative, such as patronage to appoint
ministers and the ability to declare war, are exercised by the Prime Minister
and the Cabinet, with the formal consent of the Queen.the Sovereign has an
essentially ceremonial. However the monarch does continue to exercise three
essential rights: the right to be consulted, the right to advise and the right
to warn. As a consequence of these ideals, PMs hold weekly confidential
meetings with the monarch.the abolition of the monarchy has been suggested, the
popularity of the monarchy remains strong in the UK. Support for a British
republic usually fluctuates between 15% and 25% of the population, with roughly
10% undecided or indifferent. The current monarch is HM Queen Elizabeth II who
acceded to the throne in 1952 and was crowned in 1953
. Executive
The Government performs the Executive functions of the UK on
behalf of the Sovereign. The monarch appoints a PM, from the members of the
House of Commons who is most likely to be able to form a Government with the
support of the House. The PM then selects the other Ministers which make up the
Government and act as political heads of the various Government Departments.
About twenty of the most senior government ministers make up the Cabinet. The
ministers are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the PM. The
majority of ministers are members of the House of Commons, although there are
some representatives of the Lords. The PM may make changes in the size of their
cabinet and may create new ministries and make other changes. The PM informs
the queen of the general business of the Government, presides over the Cabinet
and is responsible for allocation of functions among ministers.Government of
the United Kingdom contains a number of ministries known as departments, e.g.
Ministry of Defence. These are politically led by a Government Minister who is
often a Secretary of State and member of the Cabinet. He or she may also be
supported by a number of junior Ministers.Government has the major share in
controlling and arranging the business of the House. As the initiator of
policy, it dictates what action it wishes the Parliament to take. The major
functions of the Cabinet are: the final determination of policies, the supreme
control of the government and the coordination of government departments.of the
Minister's decisions is carried out by a permanent politically neutral organization
known as the civil service. Its constitutional role is to support the
Government of the day regardless of which political party is in power.
"Whitehall" is often used as a synonym for the central core of the
Civil Service. This is because most Government Departments have headquarters in
and around the former Royal Palace of Whitehall.
. Legislative
Parliament is the national legislative power of the UK It is
the ultimate legislative authority in the UK composed of the elected House of
Commons and the unelected House of Lords, whose members are mostly appointed.
The House of Commons is the more powerful of the two houses.Parliament Act 1911
fixed the life of a parliament at 5 years, although it may be dissolved. It can
make, unmake or alter any law. The life of the Parliament is divided into
sessions, each lasting for one year. Each session begins and ends most often in
October and November.UK is divided into parliamentary constituencies of equal
population, each of which elects a Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of
Commons. Of the 646 MPs there is currently only one who does not belong to a
political party. In modern times, all Prime Ministers and Leaders of the
Opposition have been drawn from the Commons, not the Lords.party usually has a
majority in Parliament - the party that wins most seats at a general election,
or which has support of the majority of the House of Commons, usually forms the
government. The largest minority becomes the official opposition with its own
leader and its own ‘Shadow’ cabinet whose members act as spokesmen on the
subjects for which ministers have responsibility. The members of any other
party support or oppose the Government according to their party policy.
The basic procedure for business in the Commons is a debate
on a particular proposal, followed by a resolution which either accepts or
rejects this proposal. Sometimes the resolution just expresses a viewpoint, but
most often it is a matter of framing a new law or of approving (or not
approving) government plans to raise taxes or spend money in certain ways.
Occasionally, there is no need to take a vote, but there usually is, and at
such times there is a 'division'. That is, MPs have to vote for or against a
particular proposal. They do this by walking through one of two corridors at
the side of the House - one (right) is for the 'Ayes' (those who agree with the
proposal) and the other (left) is for the 'Noes' (those who disagree). All
speeches in the House of commons are addressed to the Speaker and he calls upon
the members to speak.a proposal for a new law starts its progress through the
parliament, there will be much discussion. Most bills begin life in the House
of Commons, where they go through a number of stages.reading: This is a formal
announcement only, with no debatereading: The house debates the general
principles of the bill and in most cases, takes a vote.stage: A committee of
MPs examines the details of the bill and votes on amendments (changes) to parts
of it.stage: The House considers die amendments.reading: The amended bill is
debated as a whole.bill is sent to the House of Lords, where it goes through
the same stages. (If the Lords make new amendments, these will be considered by
the Commons.)both Houses have reached agreement, the bill receives the royal
assent and becomes an Act of Parliament which can be applied as part of the
law.
. Judiciary
The Lord Chancellor is the head of the judiciary in England
and Wales. He appoints judges and magistrates for criminal courts on behalf of
the Sovereign. However, the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 removes much of the
power in this role and gives it to others in the British government, mainly the
newly created post of Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs. Another
part of The Lord Chancellor's duties in the House of Lords have been replaced
by a dedicated "Lord/Lady Speaker", who acts as a permanent presiding
officer for the House of Lords.addition to the House of Commons, Scotland now
has its own parliament and Wales and Northern Ireland have assemblies.
. Elections and Parties
Historically, the UK had two major political parties, though
currently three parties dominate the political landscape. Originally, the
Conservatives and the Liberals dominated British politics, but the Liberal
Party collapsed in the early 20th century and was largely replaced by the
Labour Party. In the 1980s, the Liberals merged with the Social Democratic
Party and have recently experienced a resurgence as the Liberal Democrats,
enough so to again be considered a major party. In addition to the three major
parties, many minor parties contest elections. Of these, few win seats in
Parliament. In the most recent general election in 2005, the Labour Party won
re-election.
The Conservative party (The National Union or Conservative
and Unionist Associations) - 1867 - was organized on the basis or political
groups of English landed aristocracy. The origins of the party go down to the
17th c, when it was called the Tory party.Conservative party has no official
permanent programme. On the eve of general elections the party issues a
pre-election manifesto whish states the main aspects of the home and foreign
policies of the future Conservative government if the party wins the elections.
The Conservative party has no official membership, no membership cards and
party dues.Labour party was established in 1900 on the initiative of the trade
unions and several socialist organizations. The main aim was to win working
class representation in Parliament.party has no long political programme which
would determine the final aims and means to achieve them. Instead the party
endorses current political issues containing measures, which the future Labour
government intends to implement if the party takes office as a result of a
majority in the general elections.
Major issues in current British national politics, in
descending order of voter concern are:
· Defence / Terrorism
· Race relations / immigration
· The NHS
· Education
· Law and order
· Pensions and benefits
· The state of the economy
· European integration and the single
currency
· Housing and house prices
· Taxation
. Local Government
The UK is divided into a variety of different types of Local
Authorities, with different functions and responsibillities, which are further
subdivided in rural areas and some urban areas into parishes.Authorities are
responsible for such matters as administering education, public transport, and
the management of public spaces. Local authorities are often engaged in
community politics.have councils too and some are known as city or town
councils. These councils are either made up of elected parish councillors, or
in very small parishes, they use direct democracy.are two common systems of
local government in the UK: the old-style two-tier and newer single-tier
system. The older (and far more complex) two-tier system consists of District
Councils and County Councils. The District Councils are responsible for rubbish
collection, granting planning permission and council housing. County Councils
are responsible for education, social services, some public transport and other
local functions.Authorities, which are in use throughout the whole of Scotland,
Wales and Northern Ireland and in some areas in England, have a single tier of
local government, and combine District and County Council functions into one
body.
. European Union
The United Kingdom is a member of the European Union (EU). As
such, UK citizens elect Members of the European Parliament to represent them in
the European Parliament in Brussels and Strasbourg. The UK elects 78 MEPs.
Lecture 5.
National Economy
. The place of Britain in the world economy
has lost its former position of the leading industrial nation
of the world. Britain today is fifth in size of its gross domestic product. As
a result of World War I the country lost its monopoly in world trade. After
World War II Britain lost its colonial empire and experienced an accelerated
growth of monopolies. The export of capital abroad continues to be a major
factor in its development the bulk of foreign investments is directed to the
manufacturing industries of West European countries.monopolies in the country
lay special emphasis on the development of such branches of the manufacturing
and chemical industries which require high-skilled labour. Manufacturing and
other production industries have undergone considerable reorganization to
improve competitiveness. A number of industries such as aerospace, chemicals,
oil, gas, electronics, and biotechnology have gained strength while textiles
and some other traditional industries, including steel and shipbuilding, have
contracted. As the development of the new industries does not compensate the
decline of the traditional old industries there is a market growth of mass
unemployment in the country. The British economy is primarily based on private
enterprises. Part of public transport, industrial products, the coal mines,
some steel, manufacturing plants are managed by the state. The atomic industry
is also within the public sector. The national economy of GB is vitally
dependent on foreign trade. About a third of the industrial products of the
country is exported. Agriculture supplies nearly two-thirds of the country's
food.structure of the economy has experienced serious changes: a decline in the
relative importance of manufacturing and a rise in that of services. The
general location of industry has changed little in recent years: four-fifths of
industrial and agricultural production is concentrated in England.
2. Chief
industries
Chief industries in GB include:
- electricity (the first public supply was in 1881):
steam power stations, gas turbines and oil engines ( 80%), nuclear plants
(18%), hydro-electric plants manufacturing; - metals (iron, steel and
non-ferrous industry);
- the mechanical engineering industry (non-electrical
machinery, machine tools, industrial engines;
the electrical and electronic engineering industry (motors,
telecommunications and broadcasting equipment, electronic equipment and
systems);
- the motor vehicle (Ford, Chrysler, Rover, etc);
aerospace industry (civil and military aircraft, helicopters,
aero-engines, guided weapons, space vehicles);
shipbuilding;
the chemical industry (chemicals, soap, detergents,
dyestuffs, fertilizers, mineral oil refining);
the textile industry (cotton, wool); - leather and footwear
industry;
the food, drink and tobacco industries;
the pottery industry;
paper and board manufacture.
. Agriculture
supplies nearly 2/3s of the country's food. The cool
temperature climate and the comparatively even distribution of rainfall
contribute favorably to the development of agriculture. Most of the lands is
owned by big landlords. Farmers rent the land and hire agricultural workers to
cultivate it. Part of the land belongs to banks, insurance companies.is
self-sufficient in milk, eggs, meat, potatoes, wheat. However she needs to
import butter, cheese, sugar, and some other agricultural products. Britain's
second source of food is the surrounding sea. The fishing industry provides
about 70% of British fish supplies Forestry. Woodland covers about 9% of the
total land area of the country. Britain imports 90% of its timber needs from
Scandinavia and ex-USSR countries.
4. Transport
and communication
Passenger and freight traffic is carried mainly by road.
Railways, pipelines and inland waterways are important in carrying certain
types of freight, particularly bulk goods. The railway and much of the bus
industry are state owned, but road haulage is almost entirely in the hands of
private enterprises. Today the railway network is 18000 km long, of which about
4000 km are electrified. There are underground railway services in three
British cities: London, Glasgow, and Liverpool. The most ambitious project is
the English Tunnel - a fixed railway link across the English Channel between
Britain and France. Today the inland waterways of Britain are experiencing a
considerable revival of interest in the use for recreation, freight-carrying
and for their contribution to the environment. They play an important part in
land drainage and water supply. Almost all of Britain's trade is handled at a
comparatively small number of ports. Most of these are old established and have
been involved in trade for several hundred years.most striking development in
the field of transport in recent years has been the growth of air traffic.
Airline services are operated by British Airways and by a number of independent
airlines. Their fleets contain modem types of equipment and international
services are operated to Europe, the Middle East, the Far East, Australia,
Africa and North America.is served by two major airports - Heathrow and
Gatwick. Of these, Heathrow is far more important and dominant among other
British airports.
5. Overseas
trade
Overseas trade presents a combination of export and import.
In exports manufactured goods include machinery, transport equipment,
chemicals, petroleum, in imports - different manufactured goods, food and crude
oil (petroleum).important part of overseas trade consists of what are called
'invisible exports'. These are not actual goods, but they represent services
paid for by foreigners. Tourism, organized by what is usually called the
tourist industry, is an important part of this group: it involves
accomodatating, catering and providing transport for the millions of foreigners
who spend money on holidays in Britain. Another part is represented by services
of the large insurance companies. Other invisible exports include the services
to foreigners of British bankers. Engineers, scientists and technical experts
of many kinds
6. Regional
differences
Regional differences in the country's economy are essential
despite its small territory. Historically England proper is divided into the
following economic regions: the South Industrial and Agricultural region,
Central England, or the Midlands, Lancashire, Yorkshire and North England.
[Wales, Scotland and N. Ireland are also regarded as independent economic
regions of the UK. Hence, the whole country consists of eight economic
regions.of the main problems to emerge in Britain during the 20th
century has been the imbalance of economic activity between individual regions.
This has been the result of the decline of the traditional industrial
structure, based largely on the coalfields and its replacement by a new
structure more closely related to accessibility and transport network. Hence,
such regions as South England and the Midlands are in a more favorable position
than Wales, Scotland and N. Ireland.
Lecture 6. Mass Media
1.
Broadcasting
Television
Television in the UK is made up of two chartered public broadcasting
companies, the BBC and Channel 4 and two franchised commercial television
companies, (ITV and Five). There are five major free-to-air analogue networks:
BBC One, BBC Two, ITV1, Channel 4 and Five.BBC is funded by public money from a
television licence fee gathered from all UK households with a television set.
This fee is legally compulsory and failure to pay it is punishable by
prosecution, resulting in a fine or imprisonment.
There are exceptions to paying, for homes with a pensioner (person over 65
years old). It is cheaper for those with a black & white TV or eyesight
that is impaired. It is currently set at £135.50 , but is not set in
stone. The fee chargeable is limited by the government and regulatory authorities. The BBC
provides two analogue networks, BBC One (consisting of a network of local BBC
stations) and BBC Two.4 is similarly chartered to the BBC, with a remit to
provide public service broadcasting and schools programmes, however it runs
commercial advertisements to provide a revenue stream.commercial operators rely
on advertising for their revenue, and are run as commercial ventures, in
contrast to the public service operators. (ITV1, Five)broadcasters provide
additional networks on the digital television service, and all of these channels
can be accessed via a cable or satellite provider, such as Virgin Media or
BSkyB.the UK the BBC has eight digital networks:
· BBC One (also available on analogue)
· BBC Two (also available on analogue)
· BBC Three
· BBC Four
· BBC Parliament
· BBC News 24
· CBBC Channel
· CBeebies
ITV has six digital networks:
· ITV1 (also available on analogue)
· ITV2
· ITV3
· ITV4
· ITV Play
· CITV Channel
Channel 4 has four digital networks:
· Channel 4 (also available on
analogue)
· E4
· More4
· Film Four
Five has three digital networks:
· Five (also available on analogue)
· Five Life
· Five US
% of households in 2005/06 received some digital television
service.
Radio
There are many hundreds of radio stations in the UK, the most
prominent of which are the national networks operated by the BBC. Recent
advances in digital radio technology have enabled the launch of several new
stations by the Corporation.
· BBC Radio 1 broadcasts pop music
output on FM and digital radio, with live music throughout the year
· BBC Radio 2 is the UK's most listened
to radio station, featuring presenters Terry Wogan and Jonathan Ross, with a
mix of music from the last thirty years
· BBC Radio 3 is a serious classical
station, broadcasting high-quality concerts and performances. At night, it
transmits a wide range of jazz and world music
· BBC Radio 4 is a current affairs and
speech station, with news, debate and radio drama. It broadcasts the daily radio
soap The Archers, as well as flagship news programme Today
· BBC Radio Five Live broadcasts live
news and sports commentary with phone-in debates and studio guests
· BBC 6 Music transmits predominantly
alternative rock, with many live sessions. Phill Jupitus presents the morning
show
· BBC 1Xtra broadcasts rap, RnB and
drum'n'bass
· BBC 7 uses the BBC's large archive of
speech programming to broadcast classic comedy and drama, mainly originally
from Radio 4
The BBC also provide 40 local radio services, mainly
broadcasting a mix of local news and music aimed at an older audience.available
nationally are three national commercial channels, namely Virgin Radio, Classic
FM and talkSPORT. As with the BBC, digital radio has brought about many
changes, including the roll-out of local stations (particularly those based in
London) to a national audience. Examples of this are Kiss 100 and Xfm.
Commercial radio licences are awarded by government body Ofcom, which advertises
a licence for a specific area and holds a so-called beauty contest to determine
which station will be granted permission to broadcast in that area. Stations
submit detailed application documents containing their proposed format and the
outcome of research to determine the demand for their particular style of
broadcast.local commercial stations in the UK broadcast to a city or group of
towns within a radius of 20-50 miles, with a second tier of regional stations
covering larger areas such as North West England. The predominant format is pop
music, but many other tastes are also catered for, particularly in London and
the larger cities, and on digital radio.than operating as independent entities,
many local radio stations are owned by large radio groups which broadcast a
similar format to many areas. The largest operator of radio stations is GCap
Media with over 40 local commercial stations, mainly of the smaller variety. It
also owns Classic FM and London's most popular commercial station, Capital FM.
Other owners are Emap, holding mainly large city stations in the North of
England and Chrysalis Group, owner of the major Heart and Galaxy brands.of
these stations, including all the BBC radio, are also available via digital
television services.
2. Print
the beginning of the 17th century the right to print was
strictly controlled in England. This was probably the reason why the first
newspaper in English language was printed in Amsterdam by Joris Veseler around
1620.Civil War escalated the demand for news. News-pamphlets or books reported
the war, often supporting one side or the other. Following the Restoration
there arose a number of publications, including the London Gazette (first
published on November 16, 1665 as the Oxford Gazette), the first official journal
of record and the newspaper of the Crown.were 12 London newspapers and 24
provincial papers by the 1720s (the Daily Courant was the 1st London
newspaper).the early 19th century there were 52 London papers and over 100
other titles. The Daily Universal Register began life in 1785 and was later to
become known as The Times from 1788. This was the most significant newspaper of
the first half of the 19th century, but from around 1860 there were a number of
more strongly competitive titles, each differentiated by its political biases
and interests.Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by a group
of non-conformist businessmen. Its most famous editor, Charles Prestwich Scott,
made the Manchester Guardian into a world-famous newspaper in the 1890s. It is
now called The Guardian.the same time there was the establishment of more
specialized periodicals and the first cheap newspaper in the Daily Telegraph
and Courier (1855), later to be known simply as the Daily Telegraph.1860 until
around 1910 is considered a 'golden age' of newspaper publication, with
technical advances in printing and communication combined with a
professionalization of journalism and the prominence of new owners. Newspapers
became more partisan and there was the rise of new or yellow journalism.
Socialist and labour newspapers also proliferated and in 1912 the Daily Herald
was launched as the first daily newspaper of the trade union and labour
movement.World War I the newspaper industry took on an appearance similar to
today's. The post-war period was marked by the emergence of tabloid newspapers
(or red tops.are now going online as well with their own websites and with the
ever increasing pressure to reduce waste in the UK and paper and ink cost
rising it will not be far off when all newspapers will become electronic only
using the internet and e-paper as ways to publish. This rise in costs made one
UK media group to publish the UK first online only recognized local newspaper.
It was the Southport Reporter and it went online fully in 2000 as an online
only publication from day one. This type of local newspaper could spell the
move for all local newspapers in the UK to publish only on the
internet.newspapers still in circulationby year the paper was established:
· The News Letter (1737)
· The Herald (1783)
· The Times (1785)
· The Observer (1791)
· The Scotsman (1817)
· The Guardian/Manchester Guardian
(1821)
· The Sunday Times (1822)
· Evening Standard (1827)
· News of the World (1843)
· The Daily Telegraph (1855)
· The People (1881)
· Financial Times (1888)
· Daily Record (1895)
· Daily Mail (1896)
· Daily Express (1900)
· Daily Mirror (1903)
· Sunday Mirror (1915)
· Sunday Express (1918)
· The Morning Star/Daily Worker (1930)
· Sunday Telegraph (1961)
· The Sun (1964)
· Daily Star (1978)
· Mail on Sunday (1982)
· Independent (1986)
· Sunday Sport (1986)
· Daily Sport (1988)
· Independent on Sunday (1990).
Magazines
A bewildering range of magazines are sold in the UK covering
most interests and potential topics. Famous examples include Private Eye,
Hello!, The Spectator, the Radio Times and NME.
Obscure magazines are featured on the topical news quiz Have
I Got News For You, where the missing words round has a 'guest publication' - a
little known magazine that is chosen for its amusing subject matter. Each week
a different magazine is showcased.
Lecture 7.
Education in the UK
. Compulsory schooling
Education in Britain is provided by the Local Education
Authority (LEA) in each county. It is financed partly by the Government and
partly by local taxes. Until recently, planning and organization were not
controlled by central government. Each LEA was free to decide how to organize
education in its own area. In September 1988, however, the ‘National
Curriculum’ was introduced, which means that there is now greater governmental
control over what is taught in schools.education (under 5 years) Children do
not have to go to school until they reach the age of five, but there is some
free nursery-school education before that age., LEAs do not have nursery-school
places for all who would like them and these places are usually given to
families in special circumstances, for example families with one parent only.
Because of the small number of nursery schools, parents in many areas have formed
Playgroups where children under 5 years can go for a morning or afternoon a
couple of times a week.education (5 to 11 years)education takes place in infant
schools (pupils aged from 5 to 7 years) and junior schools (from 8 to 11
years). (Some LEAs have a different system in which middle schools replace
junior schools and take pupils aged from 9 to 12 years.)
Primary School or Infant School, age 4 to 51, age 5 to 62,
age 6 to 7School or Junior School3, age 7 to 84, age 8 to 95, age 9 to 106, age
10 to 11
Private education (5 to 18 years)parents choose to pay for
private education in spite of the existence of free state education. Private
schools are called by different names to state schools: the preparatory (often
called ‘prep”, schools are for pupils aged up to 13, and the public schools are
for 13 to 18 year-olds. These schools are very expensive and they are attended
by about 5 per cent of the school population.education (11 to 16/18 years)
Since the 1944 Education Act of Parliament, free secondary education has been
available to all children in Britain. Indeed, children must go to school until
the age of 16, and pupils may stay on for one or two years more if they
wish.schools are usually much larger than primary schools and most children
-over 80 per cent - go to a comprehensive school at the age of 11. These
schools are not selective - you don’t have to pass an exam to go there.1965 the
Labour Government introduced the policy of comprehensive education. Before that
time, all children took an exam at the age of 11 called the ‘11 + ‘.
Approximately the top 20 per cent were chosen to go to the academic grammar
schools. Those who failed the ‘11 + ‘ (80 per cent) went to secondary modern
schools.lot of people thought that this system of selection at the age of 11
was unfair on many children. So comprehensive schools were introduced to offer
suitable courses for pupils of all abilities. Some LEAs started to change over
to comprehensive education immediately, but some were harder to convince and
slower to act. There are a few LEAs who still keep the old system of grammar
schools, but most LEAs have now changed over completely to non-selective
education in comprehensive schools.schoolsschools want to develop the talents
of each individual child. So they offer a wide choice of subjects, from art and
craft, woodwork and domestic science to the sciences, modern languages,
computer studies, etc. All these subjects are enjoyed by both girls and boys.at
comprehensive schools are quite often put into ‘sets’ for the more academic
subjects such as mathematics or languages. Sets are formed according to ability
in each subject, so that for example the children in the highest set for maths
will not necessarily be in the highest set for French. All pupils move to the
next class automatically at the end of the year.
. Educational
reform
In the late 1980s the Conservative Government made important
changes to the British educational system. One of the most fundamental changes
was the introduction of a new ‘National Curriculum’. The aim was to provide a
more balanced education.secondary schools, for example, 80% of the timetable
must be spent on the ‘core curriculum’. This must include English. Mathematics,
Science and a Modern Language for all pupils up to the age of 16. (Before 1989
pupils of 13 or 14 used to choose the subjects they wanted to continue
studying.) At the same time, the new curriculum places greater emphasis on the
more practical aspects of education.are being taught which students will need
for life and work, and ‘work experience’ - when pupils who are soon going to
leave school spend some time in a business or industry - has become a standard
part of the school programme.with the ‘National Curriculum’, a programme
of’Records of Achievement’ was introduced. This programme is known as ‘REACH’,
and it attempts to set learning objectives for each term and year in primary
school, and for each component of each subject at secondary school. This has
introduced much more central control and standardization into what is taught.
Many people think this will raise educational standards, but some teacher?
argue that they have lost the ability to respond to the needs and interests of
their pupils, which may be different from pupils in other areas.part of the
‘REACH’ programme, new tests have been introduced for pupils at the ages of
7,11, 13 and 16. The aim of these tests is to discover any schools or areas
which are not teaching to high enough standards. But many parents and teachers
are unhappy. They feel that it is a return to the days of the ‘ 11 +’ and that
the tests are unfair because they reflect differences in home background rather
than in ability. Some teachers also fear that because of preparation for the
tests, lessons will be more ‘narrow’, with a lot of time being spent on
Mathematics and English, for example, while other interesting subjects which
are not tested may be left out.reform is bringing other changes too. City
Technology Colleges (CTCs) are new super-schools for scientifically gifted
children, who - the Government hopes-will be scientists and technological
experts of the future. These schools are partly funded by industry.addition to
the CTCs, since 1988 the Government has given ordinary schools the right to
‘opt out of (choose to leave) the LEA if a majority of parents want it.
Previously all state schools were under the control of the LEA, which provided
the schools in its area with money for books etc., paid the teachers, and
controlled educational policy. Now schools which opt out will receive money direct
from the Government and will be free to spend it as they like. They can even
pay teachers more or less than in LEA schools if they want to, and they can
accept any children - the pupils do not have to come from the neighbourhood.
Many people fear that this will mean a return to selection, i.e. these schools
will choose the brightest children. The Government says that the new schools
will mean more choice for parents.
3. Exams
At the age of 14 or 15, in the third or fourth form of
secondary school, pupils begin to choose their exam subjects. In 1988 a new
public examination - the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) -
was introduced for 16 year-olds. This examination assesses pupils on the work
they do in the 4th and 5th year at secondary school, and is often internally
assessed, although there may also be an exam at the end of the course.who stay
on into the sixth form or who go on to a Sixth Form College (17 year-olds in
the Lower Sixth and 18 year-olds in the Upper Sixth) usually fall into two
categories. Some pupils will be retaking GCSEs in order to get better grades.
Others will study two or three subjects for an 'A' Level (Advanced Level) GCE
exam (General Certificate of Education). This is a highly specialised exam and
is necessary for University entrance. Since 1988 there has been a new level of
exam: the 'AS' Level (Advanced Supplementary), which is worth half an 'A'
Level. This means that if pupils wish to study more than two or three subjects
in the sixth form they can take a combination of 'A' and 'AS' Levels. In
Scotland the exam system is slightly different.
. Leaving school at sixteen
Many people decide to leave school at the age of 16 and go to
a Further Education (FE) College. Here most of the courses are linked to some
kind of practical vocational training, for example in engineering, typing,
cooking or hairdressing. Some young people are given 'day release' (their
employer allows them time off work) so that they can follow a course to help
them in their job.those 16 year-olds who leave school and who cannot find work
but do not want to go to FE College, the Goovernment has introduced the
Training Credit Scheme. This scheme allows young people a sum of money to buy
training leading to National Vocational Qualification from an employer or
training organisation that participates in the scheme. Because the young people
pay for their own training it encourages employers to give them work. It also
gives the trainee valuable work experience.
. British
universities
For all British citizens a place at university brings with it
a grant from their Local Education authority. The grants cover tuition fees and
some of the living expense The amount depends on the parents' income. If the
parents do not earn much money, their children will receive a full grant which
will cover all their expenses.18 and 19 year-olds in Britain are fairly
independent people, and when the time comes to pick a college they usually
choose one as far away from home as possible! So. many students in northern and
Scottish universities come from the south of England and vice versa. It is very
unusual for university students to live at home. Anyway, the three university
terms are only ten weeks each, and during vacation times families are
reunited.they first arrive at college, first year university students are
called 'freshers'. Often freshers will live in a Hall of Residence on or near
the college campus, although they may move out into a rented room in their
second or third year, or share a house with friends.the first week, all the
clubs and societies hold a 'freshers' fair' during which they try to persuade
the new students to join their society.well as lectures, there are regular
seminars, at which one of a small group of students (probably not more than
ten) reads a paper he or she has written. The paper is then discussed by the
tutor and the rest of the group. Once or twice a term, students will have a
tutorial. This means that they see a tutor alone to discuss their work and
their progress. In Oxford and Cambridge, and some other universities, the study
system is based entirely around such tutorials which take place once a week.
Attending lectures is optional for 'Oxbridge' students!three or four years
(depending on the type of course and the university) these students will take
their finals. Most of them (over 90 per cent) will get a first, second or third
class degree and be able to put BA (Bachelor of Arts) or BSc (Bachelor of
Science) after their name.
Students who have completed a first degree are eligible to
undertake a postgraduate degree, which includes:
· Master's degree (typically taken in
one year)
· Doctorate degree (typically taken in
three years)education is not automatically financed by the State, and so
admission is in practice highly competitive.
Рис. 1
Lecture 8.
British Culture
The culture of the United Kingdom is rich and varied, and has
been influential on culture on a worldwide scale. It is a European state, and
has many cultural links with its former colonies, particularly those that use
the English language.
. The Arts
Literatureearliest existing native literature of the
territory of the modern UK was written in the Celtic languages of the isles and
dates back to the 6th century.Saxon literature includes Beowulf, a
national epic, but literature in Latin predominated among educated elites.
After the Norman Conquest Anglo-Norman literature brought continental
influences to the isles.literature proper developed in the late 14th century,
with the rise and spread of the London dialect of Middle English. Geoffrey
Chaucer is the first great identifiable individual in English literature: his
Canterbury Tales remains a popular 14th-century work which readers still enjoy
today.the introduction of the printing press into England by William Caxton in
1476, the Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in
the fields of poetry and drama. From this period, poet and playwright William
Shakespeare stands out as the most famous writer in the world.English novel
became a popular form in the 18th century, with Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe,
Samuel Richardson's Pamela and Henry Fielding's Tom Jones.the early 19th
century, the Romantic period showed a flowering of poetry with such poets as
William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and Lord
Byron. The Victorian period was the golden age of the realistic English novel,
represented by Jane Austen, the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, Emily and
Anne), Charles Dickens, William Thackeray, George Eliot, Lord Alfred Tennyson and Thomas Hardy.War
I gave rise to British war poets and writers such as Wilfred Owen, Siegfried
Sassoon, Robert Graves and Rupert Brooke who wrote of their expectations of
war, and/or their experiences in the trench.English novel developed in the 20th
century into much greater variety and was greatly enriched by immigrant
writers. It remains today the dominant English literary form. Other well-known
novelists include Arthur Conan Doyle, D. H. Lawrence, George Orwell, Mary
Shelley, J. R. R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Virginia Woolf and J.K. Rowling.poets
include Elizabeth Barrett Browning, T. S. Eliot, Ted Hughes, Philip Larkin,
John Milton, Alfred Tennyson, Rudyard Kipling, Alexander Pope.UK also has an
old tradition of theatre - it was introduced to the UK from Europe by the Romans.reign
of Elizabeth I in the late 16th and early 17th century saw a flowering of the
drama and all the arts. William Shakespeare, wrote around 40 plays that are
still performed in theatres across the world to this day. They include
tragedies, such as Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear; comedies, such as A
Midsummer Night's Dream and Twelfth Night; and history plays, such as Henry IV,
part 1-2. The Elizabethan age is sometimes nicknamed "the age of
Shakespeare" for the amount of influence he held over the era. Other
important Elizabethan and 17th-century playwrights include Ben Jonson,
Christopher Marlowe, and John Webster.the West End of London has a large number
of theatres, particularly centred around Shaftesbury Avenue. A prolific
composer of the 20th century Andrew Lloyd Webber has dominated the West End for
a number of years and his musicals have travelled to Broadway in New York and
around the world, as well as being turned into films.Royal Shakespeare Company
operates out of Shakespeare's birthplace Stratford-upon-Avon in England,
producing mainly but not exclusively Shakespeare's plays.and CinemaWilliam
Byrd, John Taverner, John Blow, Henry Purcell, Edward Elgar, Arthur Sullivan,
William Walton, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Benjamin Britten and Michael Tippett
have made major contributions to British music, and are known internationally.
Living composers include John Tavener, Harrison Birtwistle, Andrew Lloyd
Webber, and Oliver Knussen.also supports a number of major orchestras including
the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia,
the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra. Because of
its location and other economic factors, London is one of the most important
cities for music in the world: it has several important concert halls and is
also home to the Royal Opera House, one of the world's leading opera houses.
British traditional music has also been very influential abroad.UK was one of
the two main countries in the development of rock and roll along with the US,
and has provided bands including The Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin,
The Who, Pink Floyd, Queen, Elton John, David Bowie, Iron Maiden, Status Quo,
the Sex Pistols, Duran Duran, The Jam, The Cure, Depeche Mode, Oasis, Blur,
Radiohead and Coldplay, Massive Attack, The Prodigy, The Chemical Brothers.has
been at the forefront of developments in film, radio, and television.important
films have been produced in Britain over the last century, and a large number
of significant actors and film-makers have emerged. Currently the main film
production centres are at Shepperton and Pinewood Studios.artEnglish
Renaissance, starting in the early 16th century, was a parallel to the Italian
Renaissance, but did not develop in exactly the same way. It was mainly
concerned with music and literature; in art and architecture the change was not
as clearly defined as in the continent. Painters from the continent continued
to find work in Britain, and brought the new styles with them, especially the
Flemish and Italian Renaissance styles.a reaction to abstract expressionism,
pop art emerged originally in England at the end of the 1950s.visual artists
from the United Kingdom include John Constable, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Thomas
Gainsborough, William Blake and J.M.W. Turner. In the 20th century, Francis
Bacon, David Hockney, Bridget Riley, and the pop artists Richard Hamilton and
Peter Blake were of note.recently, the so-called Young British Artists have
gained some notoriety, particularly Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin.illustrators
include Aubrey Beardsley, Roger Hargreaves, and Beatrix Potter.
. Science and technology
Ever since the scientific revolution, the UK has been
prominent in world scientific and technological development. It was home of the
philosopher Francis Bacon, possibly the most famous of all British scientists,
Isaac Newton, who is most famous for realising that the same force is
responsible for movements of celestial and terrestrial bodies, that is gravity.
It is commonly reported that he made this realisation when he was sitting
underneath an apple tree and was hit on the head by a falling apple. He is also
famous as the father of classical mechanics, formulated as his three
laws.Newton's time, figures from the UK have contributed to the development of
most major branches of science. Examples include Michael Faraday, who, with
James Clerk Maxwell, studied electric and magnetic forces; James Joule, who
worked in thermodynamics and is often credited with the discovery of the
principle of conservation of energy; Paul Dirac, one of the pioneers of quantum
mechanics; Charles Darwin, author of On the Origin of Species and discoverer of
the principle of evolution by natural selection., the UK is also amongst the
world's leaders. Historically, it was at the forefront of the industrial
revolution, with innovations especially in textiles, the steam engine,
railroads and civil engineering. Famous British engineers and inventors from
this period include James Watt, Robert Stephenson, Isambard Kingdom Brunel and
Richard Arkwright.then, the UK has continued this tradition of technical
creativity. Alan Turing, Frank Whittle (inventor of the jet engine), Charles
Babbage (who devised the idea of the computer) and Alexander Fleming
(discoverer of penicillin) were all British. The UK remains one of the leading
providers of technological innovations today, providing inventions as diverse
as the World Wide Web and Viagra.
. Religion
Although today one of the more 'secularised' states in the
world, the UK is traditionally a Christian country:
· Anglicanism, in the form of the
Church of England, is the Established Church in England. The Queen is Supreme
Governor of the Church of England.
· Presbyterianism (Church of Scotland)
is the official faith in Scotland.
4. Food
Although there is ample evidence of a rich and varied
approach to cuisine during earlier historical periods (particularly so amongst
wealthy citizens), during much of the 19th and 20th century Britain had a
reputation for somewhat conservative cuisine. The stereotype of the native
cuisine was of a diet consisting of "meat and two veg". Even today,
in more conservative areas of the country, "meat and veg" cuisine is
still the favoured choice at the dinner table.British fare usually includes
dishes such as fish and chips; roast dishes of beef, lamb, chicken and pork;
both sweet and savoury pies and puddings, as well as regional dishes such as
the Cornish pasty and Lancashire Hotpot.the period of the 1970s a greater
experimentation with the new ingredients started due to the spread of
supermarkets. The evolution of the British diet was further accelerated with
the increasing tendency of the British to travel to continental Europe (and
sometimes beyond) for their annual holidays, experiencing new and unfamiliar dishes
as they travelled to countries such as France, Italy, and Spain.the mid to late
1990s an explosion of talented new 'TV chefs' began to come to prominence,
(such as Jamie Oliver, James Martin and Keith Floyd). This brought about a
noticeable expansion in the variety of cuisine the general public were prepared
to try and their general confidence in preparing food that had would once have
been considered merely staples of foreign cultures, particularly the
Mediterranean European, South and East Asian diets. As a result, a new style of
cooking called Modern British emerged.immigrants introduced new and exotic
dishes and ingredients to the British repertoire and national consciousness.
Many of these new dishes have since become deeply embedded in the native culture,
culminating in a speech in 2001 by Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, in which he
described Chicken Tikka Masala as 'a true British national dish'.
5. Sport
The national sport of the UK is football, having originated
in England, and the UK has the oldest football clubs in the world. The home
nations all have separate national teams and domestic competitions, most
notably the FA Premier League, the FA Cup, and the Scottish Premier League. The
first ever international football match was between Scotland and England in
1872. The match ended goalless.famous British sporting events include the
Wimbledon tennis championships, the Grand National, the London Marathon, the
Six Nations rugby championships (of which 4 "home nations"
participate), the British Grand Prix, the ashes series of cricket matches and
the boat race between Oxford and Cambridge universities.great number of major
sports originated in the UK, including: Football, squash, golf, tennis, boxing,
rugby, cricket, snooker, billiards, badminton and curling.
. National costume
There is no specifically British national costume. Even
individually, England, Wales and Northern Ireland have only vestiges of a
national costume; Scotland has the kilt and Tam o'shanter (шотландский берет).
In England certain military uniforms such as the Beefeater or the Queen's Guard
are considered to be symbolic of Englishness, though they are not official
national costumes. Morris dancers (танец в костюмах героев легенды о Робин
Гуде) or the costumes for the traditional English May dance are cited by some
as examples of traditional English costume.is in large part due to the critical
role that British sensibilities have played in world clothing since the 18th
century. Particularly during the Victorian era, British fashions defined
acceptable dress for men of business. As such, it could be argued that the
national costume of the British male is a three-piece suit, necktie and bowler
hat - an image regularly used by cartoonists as a caricature of Britishness.
. Naming convention
The naming convention in most of the UK is for everyone to
have a given name, usually (but not always) indicating the child's sex,
followed by a parent's family name. This naming convention has remained much
the same since the 15th century in England although patronymic naming remained
in some of the further reaches of the other home nations until much later.
Since the 19th century middle names have become very common and are often taken
from the family name of an ancestor.given names were largely taken from the
Bible; however, in the Gothic Revival of the Victorian era, Anglo Saxon and
mythical names became commonplace. Since the middle of the 20th century however
given names have been influenced by a much wider cultural base.
. Religious, political, social and everyday contacts
In comparison with some other European countries, neither
religion nor politics is an important part of people's life in modern Britain.
Of course, there are many people who belong to this or that church or party.
Few people are regular churchgoers and active members of political parties. For
the vast majority of parents in the country (some ethnic groups excepted), the
religion or voting habits of their future son-in-law's or daughter-in-law's
family are of only passing interest and rarely the major cause of objection to
the proposed marriage.people give a relatively high value to the everyday
personal contacts that they make. It is certainly true that the pub, or the
numerous clubs devoted to various sports and pastimes play a very important
part in many people's lives. In these places people make contacts with other
people who share some of the same interests and attitudes. Many people make
their social contacts through work. However British people don’t spend more of
their free time out of the house than most other Europeans do.
. Stereotypes and change
Many things which are often regarded as typically British
derive from books, songs or plays which were written a long time ago and do not
show modern life. There is a popular belief that Britain is a land of
tradition. The claim is based on what can be seen in public life: the annual
ceremony of the state opening of Parliament follows customs which are centuries
old and so does the military ceremony of 'trooping the colour', the changing of
the guard outside Buckingham Palace., in their private everyday lives, the
British don’t follow tradition more than the people of most other countries.
There are very few ancient customs that are followed by the majority of families
on special occasions. The country has fewer local parades or processions with
folk roots than most other countries have. The English language has fewer
sayings or proverbs that are in common everyday use than many other languages
do. In addition, it should be noted that they are the most enthusiastic
video-watching people in the world - the very opposite of a traditional
pastime!are many examples of typical British habits which are simply not
typical any more. For example, the traditional 'British' breakfast is a large
'fry-up' preceded by cereal with milk and followed by toast, butter and
marmalade, all washed down with lots of tea. In fact, only about 10% of the
people in Britain actually have this sort of breakfast. Two-thirds have cut out
the fry-up and just have the cereal, tea and toast. The rest have even less.
The image of the British as a nation of tea-drinkers is another stereotype
which is out of date. It is true that it is still prepared in a distinctive way
(strong and with milk), but more coffee than tea is now bought in the country's
shops. As for the tradition of afternoon tea with biscuits, scones, sandwiches
or cake, this is a minority activity, largely confined to retired people and
the leisured upper-middle class (although preserved in tea shops in tourist
resorts).British have few living folk traditions and don’t mean that they like
change. They may not behave in traditional ways, but they like symbols of
tradition and stability. For example, they don’t consider it especially smart to
live in a new house and, in fact, there is prestige in living in an obviously
old one. They have a general sentimental attachment to older, supposedly safer,
times. Their Christmas cards usually depict scenes from past centuries; they
like their pubs to look old; they were reluctant to change their system of
currency.of measurement are another example. The British government has been
trying for years and years to promote the metric system and to get British
people to use the same scales that are used nearly everywhere else in the
world. But it has had only limited success. British manufacturers are obliged
to give the weight of their tins and packets in kilos and grams. But everybody
in Britain still shops in pounds and ounces. The weather forecasters on the
television use the Celsius scale of temperature. But nearly everybody still
thinks in Fahrenheit . British people continue to measure distances, amounts of
liquid and themselves using scales of measurement that are not used anywhere
else in Europe . Even the use of the 24-hour clock is comparatively restricted.
. The Love of nature
Most of the British live in towns and cities. But they have
an idealized vision of the countryside. To the British, the countryside has
almost none of the negative associations which it has in some countries, such
as poor facilities, lack of educational opportunities, unemployment and
poverty. To them, the countryside means peace and quiet, beauty, good health
and no crime. Most of them would live in a country village if they thought that
they could find a way of earning a living there. Ideally, this village would
consist of thatched cottages built around an area of grass known as a 'village
green'. Nearby, there would be a pond with ducks on it. Nowadays such a village
is not actually very common, but it is a stereotypical picture that is
well-known to the British.history connected with the building of the Channel
tunnel provides an instructive example of the British attitude. While the
'chunnel' was being built, there were also plans to build new high-speed rail
links on either side of it. But what route would these new railway lines take?
On the French side of the channel communities battled with each other to get
the new line built through their towns. It would be good for local business.
But on the English side, the opposite occurred. Nobody wanted the rail link
near them! Communities battled with each other to get the new line built
somewhere else. Never mind about business, they wanted to preserve their peace
and quiet.areas of the country are official 'national parks' where almost no
building is allowed. There is an organization to which thousands of
enthusiastic country walkers belong, the Ramblers' Association. It is in
constant battle with landowners' to keep open the public 'rights of way' across
their lands. Maps can be bought which mark, in great detail, the routes of all
the public footpaths in the country. Walkers often stay at youth hostels. The
Youth Hostels Association is a charity whose aim is 'to help all, especially
young people of limited means, to a greater knowledge, love and care of the
countryside'. Their hostels are cheap and rather self-consciously bare and
simple. There are more than 300 of them around the country, most of them in the
middle of nowhere!
. The love of animals
Rossendale Pet Cemetery in Lancashire is just one example of
an animal graveyard in Britain. It was started by a local farmer who ran over
his dog with a tractor. He was so upset that he put up a headstone in memory of
his dog. Now, Rossendale has thousands of graves and plots for caskets of
ashes, with facilities for every kind of animal, from a budgie to a lioness.
Many people are prepared to pay quite large sums of money to give their pets a
decent burial (a trait they share with many Americans). As this example shows,
the British tend to have a sentimental attitude to animals. Nearly half of the
households in Britain keep at least one domestic pet. Most of them do not
bother with such grand arrangements when their pets die, but there are millions
of informal graves in people's back gardens. Moreover, the status of pets is
taken seriously. It is, for example, illegal to run over a dog in your car and
then keep on driving. You have to stop and inform the owner.
Literature
1. Удальцова З.В. История средних веков. Учебник для вузов в
2-х томах. / З.В. Удальцова, С.П. Карпова. - М., 1990.
. Фураева В.К. Новейшая история зарубежных стран: Европа и
Америка, 1917-1945: Учебник для педагогических институтов / В.К. Фураева. - М.,
1989. Гл.3. С.45-63.