Translation of political literature

Translation of political literature

"Translation of political literature "

Contents

Introduction

I. Theoretical part

1. Translation and its aim

1.1 Translation of Political literature

2. Difficulties in translation of political literature

2.1 Grammatical difficulties of translation

2.2 Lexical difficulties of transformation

2.3 Stylistic difficulties of translation

2.4 The difficulty of translation of set phrases and idioms

II. Practical part. Translation of political literature

Conclusion

References

Introduction

Politics plays very important role in a state`s development. It also defines the strategy in relations between countries. Our state is committed to get to the international level that`s why keeping contacts with other countries become more and more important. To understand and represent political interests properly, it`s necessary to have knowledge about translation of political literature, documents, speeches, and etc. That is the topicality of this work.my course work Ive set forth to study the translation methods and ways using for translation of Political literature at a deeper level and to consider the function of political literature in our everyday life.aim of this work is to find out the peculiarities of translation of political literature. The following tasks should be completed:

to review all the sources of Political literature

-to reveal the methods of translation of Political literature

to investigate grammatical, lexical, stylistic and phraseological difficulties of translation of political literature.

The object of this course work can be considered as one that gives the detailed review of the ways political literature can be translated into Russian language. It also helps to improve ones understanding of the principal rules of translation.subject of the course work is principally translation of political letters, political articles and political writings created by famous political leaders.working on my course work I used the following methods of investigation:

Comparative analysis - I discovered various sources of information about political literature and its translation and then compared it to identify the main aspects.

translation political literature difficulty

-Classification - I classified political literature into several parts such as political letters, political articles and political writings. It was necessary to find out the information about each of them and then combined the received information.passed my professional practice in a translation agency where I principally worked with political texts and documents. To translate them I read special literature such as "Translation difficulties by T. R. Levitskaya. Above all I had to use newspapers and magazines to find out the information about politics. The base of investigation consists of these materials.

The hypothesis I should mention that this research work represents a great theoretical value for those willing to take up their future carrier in the field of translations as invaluable reference to the methods and the ways of translation of Political literature.

And the practical value of this work involves the idea that translation represents a field aimed at training future translators or interpreters to translate verbal and written materials on Political subjects basing on the study of International politics, to differentiate the language features of English, Russian and other languages as well as political lexicology, phraseology, syntax and style.given course work contains introduction, two chapters, conclusion and bibliography list.first chapter gives a detailed review of the study of the general theory of translation and also reveals the role of political literature in everyday life of the humanity which is believed to be interesting to future translator/interpreters. It also discussed the methods of translation of political literature with purpose to make it easier for translator to achieve adequate translation in the target language.second chapter deals with the detailed study of grammatical, lexical, stylistic difficulties involved in translation of political literature.conclusion I have summed up the results of my laborious investigation translation of political literature.the end of the research work I have attached the bibliography list to enable the future translator to use information sources used in this work.

I. Theoretical part

1. Translation and its aim

Almost every aspect of life in general and of the interaction between speech communities in particular can be considered relevant to translation, a discipline which has to concern itself with how meaning is generated within and between various groups of people in various cultural settings. This is clearly too big area to investigate in one go. Translators will need something other than the current mixture of intuition and practice to enable them to reflect on what they do and how they do it. They will need, above all, to acquire a sound knowledge of the raw material with which they work: to understand what language is and how it comes to function for its users.is a process of rendering a text by means of other languages. The difference of translation from retelling or other kinds of transfer of a given text is that that translation is a process of creating an original unity in contexts and forms of original.translation quality is defined by its completeness and value. "The completeness and value of translation means definite rendering of the contextual sense of the original piece and a high-grade functional-stylistic conformity. "matter how a translator (interpreter) is talented he should remember two most important conditions of the process of translation: the first is that the aim of translation is to get the reader as closely as possible acquainted with the context of a given text and then second - to translate - means to precisely and completely express by means of one language the things that had been expressed earlier by the means of another language.translate one should first of all understand, to perceive the meaning and the sense of the material., to translate one should find and select the sufficient means of expression in the language the material is translated into (words, phrases, grammatical forms).are three, most identified types of translation: literary, special and sociopolitical.ways of achieving the adequacy and completeness in those three types of translation will never completely coincide with each other because of their diverse character and tasks set to translator (interpreter).object of literary translation is the literature itself. And its distinctive feature is a figurative-emotional impact on the reader, which is attained through a great usage of different linguistic means, beginning from epithet and metaphor up to rhythmical-syntactic construction of phrases.objects of special translation are materials that belong to different fields of human activities, science and technology. The distinctive feature of this type of translation is an exact expression of the sense of translating material, which is attained through wide usage of special terms. And finally, the objects of social-politic translations are the materials of propaganda and agitation character, and therefore a bright emotional sense abundant with special terms.the achievement of adequacy this type of translation possesses the features of literary and special types of translation as well.

1.1 Translation of Political literature

Political literature like any other scientific kind of literature has language items and characteristic to them that requires the translator to be precise and sharp. Most books on general politics are characterized by the passion of expression, polemic style and the specific feature is in blending the elements of scientific speech on the one hand and with different emotionally colored means of expression on the other hand.translation of political literature can be considered in two ways: as a field of linguistic activity and as a separate field in science.a field of linguistic activity translation of political literature represents one of the types of special translation possessing as objects of its activity different materials of political character.political translation comes out into a special field of study due to its specific features of written and verbal speech on political topics, which is specified by its essential character and the knowledge of this science. Sometimes these features are so diverse that in order to understand them one should have a special knowledge without which it would be very hard to clearly perceive the inner sense on politics or a translated piece., the study of specific features of written and verbal speech acquires great importance to translators (interpreters). To the features mention above belong the following:

1.maximal filling the political literature with special political terms, and in verbal speech (among the politicians) - filling it with words of political jargon - slang.

2.presence of special idiomatic expressions and phraseological units in verbal and written speech that are rarely used in colloquial speech and general literature.

As an example, I should bring the following idioms: blitzkrieg - молниеносная война, Comprehensive Program of Disarmament - Всеобъемлющая программа разоружения, principal powers - крупные державы, status quo - статус кво and many others. I have to mark - if the quantity of political idioms is limited, then the amount of "politically" related phraseological idioms is vast in English and Russian languages.

.the presence of some stylistic deflection from general literary norms is sometimes very great.)Wide usage of elliptic constructions, especially in periodically publishing materials, propaganda and other kinds of politically important printing media.

b)Preciseness and beauty of self-expression which is achieved by the usage of elliptic constructions along with wide usage of passive constructions and an often substitution of subordinate clauses by absolute constructions and verbal participle phrases.)the presence of official writing style, mostly in documents of official provisions that cover administrative and political questions.)strictly regulated use of verbal forms and word phrases in special chapters of political literature and political documents.

As was told before, while translating a political character, like doing any other special translation a great importance is given to translation of special terms.our philological literature exist lots of definitions to the concept of term, but the essence of majority comes to the following:

Term - is a word or a combination of words, which define a notion (subject, a phenomenon, property, relation or a process) that is characteristic for the given field of science, technology, art or a sphere of social life.

Terms differ from the words of general usage by definite semantic limitations and specific meanings they define. Its very hard to overestimate the general and scientific meaning of terms since the concrete knowledge demands definite expression and a term does not only fix the concept by its notion (name) but specifies it diverging it from adjacent components.better functioning, terms must express systematization of notions, express their essence or at least be semantically neutral and at the same time be unambiguous and precise.phenomenon of a separate field of science and the terms that fix them should be systemized that offers gender availability around which group notions are formed. Thus an English term representative which presents a group notion and forms a group of notions that belong to this group: representative forum (представительный форум), business world representative (представитель делового мира), representative to the talks (представитель на переговорах), representative to the public (представитель общественности), representative of political circles (представитель политических кругов), representative to NATO (представитель НАТО), representative of various strata or the population (представитель различных слоёв населения).

The capability of a term to express a systematic state of notions and easily merge with new phrases that represent new group notions that consequently appear along with the development of a definite field of science or knowledge maybe called its systematic capability.

The systematic capability of notions helps us to clarify the relation of notions, raise their semantic definiteness and ease their understanding and remembering.terms, formed on the base of mother tongue we may differ direct meaning and terminological meaning.direct meaning of a term is formed through the elements of the language used for their formation; the terminological meaning defines the concept of notion expressed by the term.terms, direct and terminological meaning of which correspond to each other, correctly orientate and underline the so-called their interrelation. These terms are able to express the essence of notions.terms, whose direct and terminological meaning does not correspond to each other belong to semantically neutral group of terms.at last, the terms whose direct and terminological meaning contradict each other, should be admitted as completely unsatisfactory because they distort the genuine relations among the notions, disorientate the hearer and do not possess any semantic definiteness.of a term also influences its clear semantic features but since we do not have any researches in this field this concept cannot always be applied. Therefore, up to 10% of English and American political terms do not possess even a relative semantic definiteness, i. e. definiteness in some political concerns. This situation may be explained by the fact that the terms according to their nature are firstly simple words, and consequently, they develop according to general laws of linguistics. The result of this is the appearance terminological homonyms that hinder the normal functioning of political terms in a language.definiteness of a term requires preciseness of an expressed idea. It also raises the semantic definiteness of the term averting its misusage according to it form.all the terms, of course, possess the above-mentioned qualities, but the translator/interpreter of political material should take them into consideration while forming new terms and solving the question of preference to one of the available term-synonyms.correct translation of political literature is a laborious work despite the terms considerable possession of definite semantic clearness and independence in usage.speaking of difficulties of translation, I imply as a matter of the first importance, the translation general political literature, which either do not yet have any equivalents in the translating language or have several similar notion for the term in question or at least have one equivalent but of doubtful adequacy. There are lots of word phrases and idiom and terms of this kind and their number is growing with development of technology and interrelation of people and especially with the development of Political sciences.achieve a correct translation I can recommend to group the political literature and the used in them according to their field of application and some principles of translation of each group. All the political terms and idioms existing in politics can be divided into three groups:

.terms - defining the notions of a foreign reality but identical to the reality of the Russian language march - марш

2.terms - defining the notions of a foreign reality absent in the Russian one but possessing generally accepted term-equivalents National Guard - Национальная Гвардия, Territorial Army - Территориальная Армия.

3.terms - defining the notions of a foreign reality that are not available in the Russian language and not having generally accepted term-equivalents: alert hanger - ангар вылета по тревоге.

The adequacy of translation of the first group is achieved by the use of terms implementing corresponding notions in Russian language.the same time, it is very important for the notion expressed by the notion of another language to correspond in meaning rendered in Russian language only by its main, essential attributes.translation of an English term poll into Russian опросы населения (голосование) is possible only for the correspondence of their principal meaning though the organization and methods of polling are quite different in both countries.adequate translation of the second group is comprised in the selection of generally accepted Russian terminological equivalents.terms, not fully meeting the above mentioned requirements due to the terminological meaning fixed for it through the linguistic activity will adequately fit into these rules.adequate translation of the words of the third group may be achieved by means of creation of a new terms, which will have to completely merge into the existing system of political terms underlying the systematization of available notions, reflect the essence of the notion it expresses or at least not to contradict it and possess an unambiguousness within its field of application., I have considered all the general principals in achieving and adequate translation including translation of political literature and the essential features of translation of political terms.

2. Difficulties in translation of political literature

2.1 Grammatical difficulties of translation

The translation process of political literature from one language into another is inevitable without necessary grammatical transformations. It gets great importance while making translation to add or omit some words since the structures of languages are quite different. Grammatical transformations are characterized by various principles - grammatical, and lexical as well, though the principal role is given to grammatical ones. Very often these grammatical changes are mixed so that they have lexical-grammatical character.has an analytical character and therefore the relation between words is mostly expressed by word-order, thats by syntactic means, and morphological means play the secondary role.syntactic structure of a language imposes restrictions on the way messages may be organized in that language. The order in which functional elements such as subject, predicator, and object may occur is more fixed in some languages than in others. Languages vary in the extent to which they rely on word order to signal the relationship between elements in the clause. Word order in English is relatively fixed. The meaning of a sentence in English often depends entirely on the order in which the elements are placed.structural features of English language require structural completeness of the sentence. One can not omit a word without supplying another one instead. This criterion is governed by stylistic preference of the language to prevent word and make the sentence more emphatic.comparing the grammatical categories and forms of English and Russian languages we identify the following differences: a) the absence of the categories in one of the comparing languages, b) partial correspondence, c) complete correspondence. The necessity of grammatical transformations arises only on two first cases. When comparing the English with Russian I should mention that Russian does not have the notions like article and gerund and absolute nominative constructions as well. Partial conformity and unconformity in meaning and usage of corresponding forms and constructions also demands grammatical transformations. I can refer to this case the partial unconformity of the category of number, partial unconformity in the forms of passive constructions, partial unconformity of the form of infinitive and gerund and some other differences in expressing the modality of the clause and so on.of all I should consider the article both definite and indefinite which despite its abstract meaning very frequently demands semantic expression in translation. As we know both these articles originated from pronouns; the definite one originated from index pronoun and the indefinite one from indefinite pronoun, which refers to number one. These primary meanings are sometimes obvious in their modern usage. In this cases their lexical meaning should be rendered in translation otherwise the Russian sentence would be incomplete and ambiguous for denotative meaning of articles is an inseparable part of the whole context meaning of a given sentence.has been pointed before the most difficult are cases when classifying meanings of indefinite articles demand semantic transfer in translation.

I need a Government which believes in planning ahead for jobs and which will use available labor to build homes for the British people.

Нам нужно такое правительство, которое было бы убеждено в целесообразности планирования занятости и использовало бы наличную рабочую силу в строительстве домов для населения.

Pretty often the definite article demands translation in cases when it comes before numerals.

The two sides also signed a Treaty in the Limitation of Underground Nuclear Tests.

Обе стороны подписали договор об ограничении подземных испытаний атомного оружия.

From the mentioned above cases I can judge that missing article translation may lead to misinterpretation or incorrect and incomplete translation of a sentence.role of verb complexes in English is quite evident therefore I will consider only some peculiar cases of verb transformations during translation.of all let me consider the verb construction with the preposition for:

…American military bases on foreign territories which are intended for launching missiles possessed by United States armed forces.

… американские военные базы на территориях других государств, которые предназначены для запуска ракет американскими ВВС.

In this case the infinitive construction is translated like adverbial modifier of purpose.construction with secondary predicate is widely used in newspaper style due to its preciseness and because it help to avoid the responsibility for the given information.

The United States Congress is aimed to control all the financial expenses of the Government.

Целью конгресса Соединённых Штатов является контроль всех расходов правительства.

It is natural that transformation is required while translating sentences with participles of absolute nominative construction.often enough grammatical transformations are necessary while rendering conforming forms and constructions for some divergence in their meaning and usage. Such differences of opinions are observed in cases of usage of the category of number. This refers to both countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns have single and plural forms in both languages that usually coincide still we observe cases when their usage is different, ex.:

War Atrocity on Peace Conference Eve (news head).

Зверства (интервентов) накануне мирной конференции

Concerning uncountable nouns, especially those expressing abstract notions we may have much more difficulties because most of them are paradigmatic. For example: ink - чернила, money - деньги.Nile Valley appears to have been unfit for human habitation during the Stone Ages.

Долина Нила, по-видимому, была не пригодна для жизни человека на протяжении всего каменного века (во все периоды каменного века).

In Russian the Stone Age expression is of a historical nature and is never used in plural.cases when plural form is to be preserved for it carries some inherent sense one has to apply countable nouns, ex.:

Strikes broke out in many British industries.

В ряде отраслей промышленности Англии вспыхнули забастовки.

Sometimes, owing to some reasons some of constructions has wider usage in one languages comparing with other languages. The best example of this is the passive form - widely used in English mostly due to disappearance of word flexion. As a result, both indirect and predicative object maybe transformed into the objects of passive construction.should notice that the passive-active transformation can not give sufficient result for in passive construction the stress is being made on the object of action and in the active construction the stress is being made on the agent of action. Since the structure and word order of simple sentence is subject + predicate + object the importance of stylistics is bigger then to distinguish the object one chooses the passive construction.are found in some other cases of infinitive usage - infinitive in substantivized constructions (like post-positive attribute) and infinitive expressing following actions, for example:

The president warned of drastic steps to be taken against racialists in the Zambian copper belt.

Президент предупредил, что будут предприняты решительные меры против белых расистов в Медном поясе Замбии.

The infinitive functioning as attribute is translated into object clause with the verb in the Future tense.Continuative Infinitive is often mistaken for the infinitive of purpose, but in this function it expresses the action following the after the action expressed by predicate and represents the logical development of things.

Советский Союз решил заключить договор с Германией. Но два года спустя Германия сама нарушила его.

The Continuative infinitive very often is used with the adverb only which stresses it. This emphatic function can be rendered in many ways., all the considered cases - absence of conforming form, partial correspondence, differences in character and use - urge translators to make necessary grammatical transformations while translating some piece. Those grammatical transformations maybe divided into following types:

1. substitution
2. transposition
3. omission
4. supplementation

Substitution is one of the grammatical relations among the parts of the sentences. In substitution, an item (or items) is replaced by another item (or items), ex:

I like politics. And I do.

In this example, do is a substitute for like politics. Items commonly used in substitution in English include do, one, and the same, as in the following examples:

You think US will start the war against Iraq? - No one does.

I made use of substitution while translating the sentence because of several reasons: absence of similar construction in Russian language, unconformity in usage of corresponding forms and constructions and some lexical reasons, which include different word usage and different norms of combinability in English and Russian and the absence of the part of speech with corresponding meaning.

An attempted overthrow in Peru.

Попытка совершить переворот в Перу.

In Russian we do not have the conforming participle II of the verb пытаться. And this made me change the part of speech; the participle attempted was translated into Russian by the noun попытка. The expression попытка переворота does not conform to the norms of Russian language thats why I have to apply additional word совершить.

The transformation of active into passive is also when a translator uses substitution.

More light was shed yesterday on the effect of C. S. gas, which was claimed by Pentagon to be virtually harmless to health.

Вчера поступили дополнительные сведения о вредном действии газа C. S., который, по утверждению Пентагона, якобы не опасен для здоровья.

The phraseological unit more light was shed was translated by means of lexical transformation and the passive construction was replaced by an active one. The passive construction in the object clause also undergone lexical transformation - verbal construction was substituted by substantive one: по утверждению.example can illustrate the fact that lexical and grammatical transformations are closely related with each other.

Transposition, thats, change of structure of the sentence may be caused by several reasons. But the main of them, as it has been mentioned before is the difference in the structure of the English and Russian languages. The fixed order of words in English bears hierarchic character, first come the primary parts of the sentence; noun, predicate followed by secondary parts. In Russian the word order is not fixed but one can observe the tendency to locate the main information at the end of sentences expressing it be the noun. The word order in Russian sentences follows the model: adverbial modifier, predicate and then the noun - thats the order absolutely opposite to English.

Вчера в Вашингтоне состоялась пресс-конференция.

A Press Conference was held in Washington yesterday.

In English, according to fixed word order, the noun of the sentence stands at the beginning of clause.is required when the English sentence contains a large group of nouns with indefinite article and then it is natural that they, being the center of informative message are placed at the end of the sentence. Besides, a short, compared with the noun predicate can not bear the emphatic sense of a large group of nouns.is very frequent when grammatical and lexical transformations demand supplementation or omission of some words or elements. Therefore omission and supplementation are frequently combined with other types of grammatical transformations and more frequently with substitution of parts of speech.of parts of speech is characterized by several factors: difference in structures of the sentences and that short English sentences demand spread translation in the Russian language. Absence of some corresponding word or lexical-semantic variant in both languages is also one of the reasons of applying additional words in translation.

The American troops were thought to be heading toward Saigon, but no one seemed to be aware of fierce resistance of the nation.

Полагали, что американские войска направляется на Сайгон, но казалось, что никто не знал о жестоком сопротивлении местного населения.

The construction Nominative + Infinitive with two omitted elements was given in object clause plus introductory sentences… который, как полагали раньше, движется… Thus, the difference in the structure of sentences demanded supplementation in the given translation.

The actions of Congress and of North Carolina and Tennessee statesmen, aided by gifts of wise conservationists, have set this land aside as Great Smoky National Park.

Эта местность на берегу реки Смоки-Хилл была превращена в Национальный парк благодаря усилиям Конгресса и государственных деятелей штатов Северная Каролина и Теннеси, а также благодаря пожертвованиям любителей природы, понимающих всю важность её сохранения.

In regard to the absence on corresponding word in the Russian language to the English conservationists I have rendered it by two words любителей природы; and taking into consideration the combinability of the attribute wise I have translated it by adverbial modifier applying introductory words like понимающих всю важность её сохранения, the noun сохранения renders all the essence of the given sentence which is contained in conservationists. To make the perception of the sentence easier I have I added the words штатов, на берегу реки.

Ellipsis involves the omission of an item. In other words, in ellipsis an item is replaced by nothing. This is a case of leaving something unsaid which is nevertheless understood. It doesnt include every instance when the hearer or reader has to supply missing information, but only those cases where grammatical structure itself points to an item or items that can fill the slot in question. Here are some examples of ellipsis:

The United States donated two millions dollars and Britain one and a half millions pounds. (omitted item: donated in second clause).are four strategies. Choose any of them. (omitted item strategy)

Use of synonymy pairs is characterized to all styles of written speech of English language. Preserving such synonymy pair is accepted as pleonasm and it is absolutely superfluous even when translating official documents that demand preciseness.

The Treaty was declared null and void.

Договор был объявлен недействительным.battle was fierce while it lasted.

Бой был жесток.

Time complex object in this case functions as a cliché and doesnt have corresponding equivalent in Russian.should remind that it is not always an English sentence completely corresponds to the Russian one. Very frequently the structure of a Russian sentence absolutely differs from the one English. It has different word order, parts of the sentences and pretty often differs even the order of sentences. Nevertheless, some differences in usage of some specific features make us leave some elements unsaid while translating the whole. And all these cases are explained by grammatical transformations I have just investigated.

2.2 Lexical difficulties of transformation

Every word in a language carries some concrete notion. The semantics of a word reflects different signs of the subject and the relation of its meanings to other objects it denotes. The semantics of a word includes word perception characteristic to the studied language, being more precise to the bearers of the studied language. When studying the reality of some object we can identify that its name reveals its functions which finds the reflection in the semantics of the word.languages sufficiently reflect one and the same perception of reality. Therefore the difficulty stylistic devices represents to a translator is based on word play, if in corresponding words of both languages are featured different signs.second reason, causing lexical difficulties to translation of political literature is the difference in the semantic volume of a word. In every language a word exists in a close connection with the lexical-semantic system of a given language. It may have various kinds of lexical meanings variants; it may widen or narrow its meaning and make it more abstract or concrete.third reason presenting lexical difficulties in translation the difference in combinability. Words in languages have some definite relation characteristic only to the given language. It should be mentioned that word combinability is possible if words point to similar objects they denote. This difference of word combinability in various languages is very important; therefore some types of combinability are easily accepted in one of language and are completely unacceptable in other languages.in the semantic structure of a word represents one of the main reason causing lexical difficulties in translation. The semantic structure of a word predefines the possibility of its contextual use, and the translation of contextual meaning presents a hard task to translators. Contextual meaning of a word in many instances depends on the character of semantic context, on the semantics of the words combining with it.

In an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages.

The word hostage according to different dictionaries has got only one meaning - заложник. But in the given instance the hostage acquired the meaning жертва. Its contextual meaning probably exists in its paradigmatic meaning; any hostage may get killed therefore while translating this example I have to use the word жертва since заложник is not used in the given contextual meaning.

Первыми жертвами в атомной войне будут женщины и дети

Contextual meaning of a word is always effective semantically and stylistically owing to its unexpectedness as well. It often used in stylistic purposes and therefore a translator runs into two obstacles: he should avoid and at the same time not to break the norms of translation.most difficulty presents the translation of emotional coloring that demands lexical changes. There is a wide range of words in a language that besides their logical meaning have emotional meanings or co-meaning. Emotional meaning of words usually presents in paradigmatic meanings of words. Emotional meaning, based in the word is usually created by association - positive or negative - which a word causes and the associations that exist in it despite the context of perception.peculiar group of words demanding transformation in translation are the words that possess different volume of meaning in Russian and English languages. To this group belong international words, some words of human perception, mental activity.words are words that are used in a wide range of languages in one or several forms. These words express scientific and social-politic notions. The volume meaning of these words does not usually coincide (except term-words). Though it is well-known that they comprise the false-friends of translators and the mistakes in their translation are frequent. These mistakes are caused not only by difference in their semantic structure but by the difference of their usage as well which demand lexical changes:

We are told that television this autumn will give a massive coverage to the General Election.

Сообщают, что нынешней осенью передачи по телевидению будут широко освещать парламентские выборы.

The word massive along with the meaning массивный, has other meanings like массовый, грандиозный, огромный, широкий and so on.transformations are also caused by necessity to concretize a word while translating. It is characteristic to English language the availability of words with wide spread meaning.of these words depends on the context, which helps to identify their concrete meaning. Usually they are translated by various Russian words that have concrete meaning. Practically it refers to verbs - to verbs of speech and verbs of movement. Concrete lexical meaning, this or that the lexical-semantic variant of a verb depends on structure and lexical meaning of words that distribute them.

At the by-election victory went to the Labor candidate.

На дополнительных выборах победа досталась лейбористам (победу одержал кандидат от лейбористской партии).

Among nouns of wide meaning a special group comprises abstract nouns that frequently demand concrete definitions in translation. So, for example, despite the presence of a word президентство in Russian - English word presidency usually refers to the words a пост президента or президентская всласть.ageing Speaker cannot take on the burdens of the presidency.

Престарелый спикер не может взять на себя бремя президентской власти (в случае смерти президента).

The last feature of lexical transformation to be discussed is traditional word usage for every language and which causes frequent lexical transformations. This traditional usage is to some extent related to another approach to the phenomena of reality. For example:

The military base is built on terraces rising from the lake.

For Russian the traditional use will be:

Военная база построена на террасах, спускающихся к озеру.

In this case preposition is omitted in translation because as the originality of the English word usage required complete transformation. To the traditional word usage can also be referred the so-called clichés - order, and the clichés in wider sense.

Hands up! - Руки вверх!assault of the castle was followed by continuous bombing. Loss of life was uncountable.

За штурмом крепости последовала длительная бомбардировка. Жертвы были бесчисленны.

2.3 Stylistic difficulties of translation

Practically, stylistic devices in almost all languages are similar still though their functions in speech vary. Identical stylistic devices are used differently in languages; they perform different functions and have different value in stylistic system of their language what actually explains their necessity when transformations in translation occur. The stylistic changes are as necessary as grammatical or lexical ones. While applying some grammatical or lexical transformation in translation the translator is guided by principle of rendering grammatical of lexical meaning. When rendering stylistic meaning of the source text a translator should be guided by the same principle - to recreate in translation the same impression that might be left by the original text.translator should not try to preserve the stylistic device given in the sentence, but reproduce its function in the target language.should not forget that almost all stylistic devices are multi functional. It is like when polysemantic words in English and Russian languages do not coincide in their lexical-semantic variants and the same is when differ in the function of identical stylistic device.illustration it we can compare alliteration in the English and Russian languages. The use of alliteration is a convincing acknowledgement that various functions of stylistic devices in different languages do not always coincide in usage.translation of stylistic devices has been already discussed. But it is extremely important to distinguish in the translated text original and imagined alliterations so that to avoid unnecessary emphasizing and to keep stylistic equivalence which presents necessary component of adequate translation. There is a constant danger to smooth and de-color the original text or, on the contrary, to make translation brighter and stylistically colored. But sometimes a translator consciously applies some " "smoothing" or neutralization in other words.as you know is a more widespread stylistic device in the English language, than in Russian.repetition is widely used with stylistic purposes in newspaper publicity. In these cases the translator is compelled to apply stylistic changes, make substitution or omission.

A policy of see no stagnation, hear no stagnation, speak no stagnation has had too long a run for our money.

Слишком долго мы расплачиваемся за политику полного игнорирования и замалчивания застоя в нашей экономике.

The triple repetition of no stagnation has been omitted in translation, though is partially compensated by the use of synonymic pair at a word (stagnation), but neutralization is evident in translation. The neutralization happened when translating the phraseological unit to have (too long) a run for our money.

Metaphor is used in all emotionally - colored styles of speech. However in style of fiction the metaphor always carries original character, whereas in political literature the original metaphor is used rather seldom and basically - copied metaphors. Nevertheless in advanced clauses of the English and American political literature, the purpose of which is to assure, to make people believe and to impress the reader, that is to force him to agree with the point of view given in the article, one can often see rather bright and colorful metaphors.the difficulty of translation of metaphor consists in translating some word combination or a phraseological unit, which does not have figurative equivalent in Russian.`s consider the problem of extended metaphor. The extended metaphor represents a chain of the logically connected figurative components. Sometimes such components of the extended metaphors pass through the whole clause.

The latest official explanation of the President's Indochina policy is that "he is backing out of the saloon with both guns firing", but there is a catch to this.insists that the guys in the white hats keep control of the saloon before he leaves town. He wants a non-communist bartender, and a non-communist sheriff, and a secure non-communist town before he rides away into the sunset of November, 1972.

In the final paragraph of the article the elements of one metaphor are partially repeated: but all this is a little more complicated than "backing out of the saloon".

The images of this extended metaphor are taken from so-called "western" - of film about cowboys in "wild" west. In this case all elements of the developed (unwrapped) metaphor, perhaps, can be kept in translation.

Согласно последнему официальному объяснению политики президента в отношении Индокитая, "он хочет выбраться из бара, пятясь к двери и отстреливаясь из двух пистолетов". Но за этим кроется что-то еще.

Он хочет, чтобы парни в белых шапках следили за порядком в баре до тех пор, пока он не уедет из города. Он хочет, чтобы бармен не был коммунистом и чтобы шериф не был коммунистом и чтобы город заведомо не был в руках коммунистов. И только тогда он поскачет навстречу ноябрьским сумеркам 1972 года.

And at the end of clause - "но все это несколько сложнее, чем пятясь к двери, выбраться из бара".

Being purely linguistic and stylistic device - metonymy is used more and more in political literature, perhaps, even more than metaphor. Metonymy translation presents one of numerous problems for the use of metonymy significantly differs in English and Russian languages. Due to this fact the translator is often forced to go back to the primary meaning of a word, that is to the meaning that was firstly created by metonymy.is a widespread case of metonymy usage - substitution of concrete notion by an abstract one, which can not always be preserved.

"It (the flood) has hurl us a great deal," the Pakistan Prime Minister told correspondents last week as he toured the destruction in the flooded provinces. ("Newsweek")

"Наводнение нанесло нам огромный ущерб", - сказал корреспондентам премьер-министр Пакистана, на прошлой неделе во время поездки по пострадавшим от наводнения районам.

Concerning the translation of comparison as a stylistic device, the difficulties arise only if the words of English and Russian languages are various in the semantic structure. I have already considered in the chapter of lexical transformations the question of translation of such terms and now I would like to give the example of stylistic comparison.discussed the importance of articles in translation and now I should mention once again that they can serve in stylistic purposes.expressiveness gets the definite article, before a indefinite pronoun one.

… this is the one way I can achieve success in elections.

…это единственный способ достигнуть победы на выборах.

The given synonyms compensate render the stress contained the original text.is another kind of stylistic transformation - actualization - which involves transition of something simple into something unusual, strange. It reveals potential expressiveness put in the lexical morphologic and syntactic means of a language.of the passive form often occurs while translating political literature but it is not as colored as in the translations of fiction.

Уходящий со своего поста председатель Генеральной Ассамблее навел порядок в зале, энергично стуча молотком.

The expressiveness and emphasis created by the passive form of the verb that had been formed as a result of conversion are compensated by lexical means. The compressed nature of sentence was lost for the verb to gavel has two semantic components one of action and an instrument that were to be rendered in translation.from everything that has been discussed above I can infer that the usage of some of stylistic devices in English is peculiar - and bears specific national character, therefore their direct translation in many instances is impossible. I should warn that it is not important to classify the device itself but the point is to be able to realize their ongoing effect and to identify the purpose of their application in the translation they are working on.

2.4 The difficulty of translation of set phrases and idioms

As far as idioms and phraseological units are concerned in translation, the first difficulty that a translator comes across is being able to recognize that s/he is dealing with an idiomatic expression. This is not always so obvious. There are various types of idioms, some more easily recognizable than others. Those which are easily recognizable include expressions which violate truth conditions, such as It's raining cats and dogs, throw caution to the winds, storm in a tea cup, jump down someone's throat, and food for thought. They also include expressions which seem ill-formed because they do not follow the grammatical rules of the language, for example trip the light fantastic, blow someone to kingdom come, put paid to, the powers that be, by and large, and the world and his friend. Expressions which start with like (simile-like structures) also tend to suggest that they should not be interpreted literally. These include idioms such as like a bat out of hell and like water off a duck's back. Generally speaking, the more difficult an expression is to understand and the less sense it makes in a given context, the more likely a translator will recognize it as an idiom. Because they do not make sense if interpreted literally, the highlighted expressions in the following text are easy to recognize as idioms (assuming one is not already familiar with them):

This can only be done, I believe, by a full and frank airing of the issues. I urge you all to speak your minds and not to pull any punches.

Provided a translator has access to good reference works and monolingual dictionaries of idioms, or, better still, is able to consult native speakers of the language, opaque idioms which do not make sense for one reason or another can actually be a blessing in disguise. The very fact that s/he cannot make sense of an expression in a particular context will alert the translator to the presence of an idiom of some sort.are two cases in which an idiom can be easily misinterpreted if one is not already familiar with it:

(a) Some idioms are 'misleading'; they seem transparent because they offer a reasonable literal interpretation and their idiomatic meanings are not necessarily signaled in the surrounding text. A large number of idioms in English, and probably all languages, have both a literal and an idiomatic meaning, for example go out with ('have a romanticrelationship with someone') and take someone for a ride ('deceive or cheat someone in some way'). Such idioms lend themselves easily to manipulation by speakers and writers who will sometimes play on both their literal and idiomatic meanings. In this case, a translator who is not familiar with the idiom in question may easily accept the literal interpretation and miss the play on idiom.

(b) An idiom in the source language may have a very close counter part in the target language which looks similar on the surface but has a totally or partially different meaning. For example, the idiomatic question Has the cat had/got your tongue? is used in English to urge someone to answer a question or contribute to a conversation, particularly when their failure to do so becomes annoying.from being alert to the way speakers and writers manipulate certain features of idioms and to the possible confusion which could arise from similarities in form between source and target expressions, a translator must also consider the collocational environment which surrounds any expression whose meaning is not readily accessible. Idiomatic and fixed expressions have individual collocational patterns. They form collocations with other items in the text as single units and enter into lexical sets which are different from those of their individual words. Take, for instance, the idiom to have cold feet. Cold as a separate item may collocate with words like weather, winter, feel, or country. Feet on its own will perhaps collocate with socks, chilblain, smelly, etc. However, having cold feet, in its idiomatic use, has nothing necessarily to do with winter, feet, or chilblains and will therefore generally be used with a different set of collocates.ability to distinguish senses by collocation is an invaluable asset to a translator working from a foreign language. It is often subsumed under the general umbrella of 'relying on the context to disambiguate meanings', which, among other things, means using our knowledge of collocational patterns to decode the meaning of a word or a stretch of language. Using our knowledge of collocational patterns may not always tell us what an idiom means but it could easily help us in many cases to recognize an idiom, particularly one which has a literal as well as a non-literal meaning.an idiom or fixed expression has been recognized and interpreted correctly, the next step is to decide how to translate it into the target language. The difficulties involved in translating an idiom are totally different from those involved in interpreting it. Here, the question is not whether a given idiom is transparent, opaque, or misleading. An opaque expression may be easier to translate than a transparent one. The main difficulties involved in translating idioms and fixed expressions may be summarized as follows:

(a) An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target language. The way a language chooses to express, or not express, various meanings cannot be predicted and only occasionally matches the way another language chooses to express the same meanings. One language may express a given meaning by means of a single word, another may express it by means of a transparent fixed expression, a third may express it by means of an idiom, and so on. It is therefore unrealistic to expect to find equivalent idioms and expressions in the target language as a matter of course.single words, idioms and fixed expressions may be culture-specific. Formulae such as Merry Christmas and say when which relate to specific social or religious occasions provide good examples.McGuire (1980: 21) explains that the expression say when 'is… directly linked to English social behavioral patterns' and suggests that 'the translator putting the phrase into Russian has to contend with the problem of the non-existence of a similar convention in either culture'. Less problematic, but to some extent also culture-specific, are the sort of fixed formulae that are used in formal correspondence, such as Yours faithfully and Yours sincerely in English. These, for instance, have no equivalents in Arabic formal correspondence. The same mismatch occurs in relation to French and several other languages but in Russian we have similar expression Ваш верный!

Idioms and fixed expressions which contain culture-specific items are not necessarily untranslatable. It is not the specific items an expression contains but rather the meaning it conveys and its association with culture-specific contexts which can make it untranslatable or difficult to translate. For example, the English expression to carry coals to Newcastle, though culture-specific in the sense that it contains a reference to Newcastle coal and uses it as a measure of abundance, is nevertheless closely paralleled in Russian by в Тулу со своим самоваром. Both expressions convey the same meaning, namely: to supply something to someone who already has plenty of it.

1. An idiom may be used in the source text in both its literal and idiomatic senses at the same time. Unless the target-language idiom corresponds to the source-language idiom both in form and in meaning, the play on idiom cannot be successfully reproduced in the target text.
2. An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar counterpart in the target language, but its context of use may be different; the two expressions may have different connotations, for instance, or they may not be pragmatically transferable. An idiom may be used in the source text in both its literal and idiomatic senses at the same time. Unless the target-language idiom corresponds to the source-language idiom both in form and in meaning, the play on idiom cannot be successfully reproduced in the target text.

Using idioms in English and American politics is very much a matter of style. Languages such as Arabic and Chinese which make a sharp distinction between written and spoken discourse and where the written mode is associated with a high level of formality tend, on the whole, to avoid using idioms in written texts. Fernando and Flavell discuss the difference in rhetorical effect of using idioms in general and of using specific types of idiom in the source and target languages and quite rightly conclude that: 'Translation is an exacting art. Idiom more than any other feature of language demands that the translator be not only accurate but highly sensitive to the rhetorical nuances of the language.

II. Practical part. Translation of political literature

I passed my professional practice in the translation agency "Translators group. Here I worked on translation of political topics, articles from magazines and newspapers and political letters.part of the course work based on the knowledge obtained on practice. It includes the translation of political items and the detailed analysis of completed work.translation process of political literature from one language into another is inevitable without necessary grammatical transformations. It gets great importance while making translation to add or omit some words since the structures of languages are quite different. Grammatical transformations are characterized by various principles-grammatical and lexical as well. Though the principal role is given to grammatical ones. Very often these grammatical changes are mixed so that they have lexical-grammatical character.

The public power grows stronger, however, in proportion as class antagonisms within the state become more acute and as adjacent states become larger and more populous.

Общественная власть усиливается по мере того, как обостряются классовые противоречия внутри государства, и по мере того, как соприкасающиеся между собой государства становятся больше и населеннее.

The supersession of the bourgeois state by the proletarian state is impossible without a violent revolution. The abolition of the proletarian state, i. e., of the state in general, is impossible except through the process of "withering away".

Смена буржуазного государства пролетарским невозможна без насильственной революции. Уничтожение пролетарского государства, т.е. уничтожение всякого государства, невозможно иначе, как путем

While translating the structure filling words one has to use words with complete meaning or make use of some other kind of functional filling.comparing the grammatical categories and forms of English and Russian languages there are the following differences: a). the absence of the categories in one of the comparing languages, b). partial correspondence, c).complete correspondence. The necessity of grammatical transformations arises only on two first cases. When comparing the English with Russian I should mention that Russian does not have notions like article and gerund and absolute nominative constructions as well. Partial conformity and unconformity in meaning and usage of corresponding forms and constructions also demands grammatical transformations. One can refer to this case the partial unconformity of the category of number, partial unconformity in the forms of passive constructions, partial unconformity of the form of infinitive and gerund and some other differences in expressing the modality of the clause and so on.of all one should consider the article for article both definite and indefinite which despite its abstract meaning very frequently demands semantic expression in translation. As we know both these articles originated from pronouns; the definite one originated from index pronoun and the indefinite one from indefinite pronoun, which refers to number one. These primary meanings are sometimes obvious in their modern usage. In this cases their lexical meaning should be rendered in translation otherwise the Russian sentence would be incomplete and ambiguous for denotative meaning of articles is an inseparable of the whole context meaning of a given sentence. There are cases when classifying function of indefinite articles is so obvious that one should render its meaning by some lexical item.

The only sensible solution in the Middle East is a peace which would withdraw Israeli troops.

Единственное разумное решение ближневосточного вопроса - это такой мир, который обеспечил бы вывод израильских войск.

As has been mentioned before the most difficult are cases when classifying meanings of indefinite articles demands semantic transfer in translation.

Не appeals to the great mass of Americans who are middle-of-the-roaders people to reject the far-right policies of a Barry Goldwater.

Он обращается к американцам, придерживающимся умеренных взглядов, которые составляют значительное число, с призывом отвергнуть крайне правую политическую линию деятелей типа Барри Голдуотера.

Yesterday the election officials tabulated the first election returns in that precinct.

Вчера впервые были подсчитаны результаты голосования на этом избирательном участке.

From the mentioned above cases one can judge that missing article translation may lead to misinterpretation or incorrect and incomplete translation of a sentence.in the semantic structure of a word represents one of the main reason causing lexical difficulties in translation. The semantic structure of a word predefines the possibility of its contextual use, and the translation of contextual meaning presents a hard task to translators. Contextual meaning of a word in many instances depends on the character of semantic context, on the semantics of the words combining with it.

In an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages

Первыми жертвами в атомной войне будут женщины и дети

The word hostage according to different dictionaries has got only one meaning - заложник. But in the given instance the hostage acquired the meaning жертва. Its contextual meaning probably exists in its paradigmatic meaning; any hostage may get killed therefore while translating this example I have to use the word жертва since заложник is not used in the given contextual meaning.involves the omission of an item. In other words, in ellipsis an item is replaced by nothing. This is a case of leaving something unsaid which is nevertheless understood. It doesnt include every instance when the hearer or reader has to supply missing information, but only those cases where grammatical structure itself points to an item or items that can fill the slot in question. Here are some examples of ellipsis: The agreement signed by the two countries provided just and equitable peace conditions for both sides. Подписанное обеими странами соглашение предусматривает справедливые условия мира для обеих сторон.

The bold and courageous struggle of the working class and its Communist Party carried the day.

Мужественная борьба рабочего класса и его коммунистической партии увенчалась успехом.

Supplementation of parts of speech is characterized by several factors: difference in structures of the sentences and that short English sentences demand spread translation in the Russian language. Absence of some corresponding word or lexical-semantic variant in both languages is also one of the reasons of applying additional words in translation.

The new American Secretary of State has proposed a world conference on food supplies.

Новый государственный секретарь США предложил созвать всемирную конференцию по вопросам продовольственных ресурсов.

George McGoverns 1972 economic program turned into a vote-losing albatross.

Экономическая программа Макговерна обернулась для него неудачей и привела к потере голосов избирателей.

Conclusion

In the given course work I have investigated various translation methods of political literature from English into Russian. I tried to give a detailed study of the features of translation of Political literature for it is one of the types of translation that has not been studied in details in our country up to this time., Ive studied the translation methods of Political literature at a deeper level, the types and ways of translation of Political literature; Ive also considered the function of political literature in everyday life of the humanity.aim of this work was to introduce the translation approach to Political literature so that to make it easy to perceive for those willing to keep up their educational and scientific carrier in the science of translation, it was purposed to broaden their view on translation studies and peculiar features while translating Political literature.every aspect of life in general and of the interaction between speech communities in particular can be considered relevant to translation, a discipline which has to concern itself with how meaning is generated within and between various groups of people in various cultural settings. Translators will need something other than the current mixture of intuition and practice to enable them to reflect on what they do and how they do it. They will need, above all, to acquire a sound knowledge of the raw material with which they work: to understand what language is and how it comes to function for its users.reviewing the grammatical changes I considered the following transformations: substitution, omission, transposition and supplementation.

Substitution is one of the grammatical relations among the parts of the sentences. In substitution, an item (or items) is replaced by another item (or items), as you know is when an item is replaced by nothing. This is a case of leaving something unsaid which is nevertheless understood.

Transposition is required when the English sentence contains a large group of nouns with indefinite article and then it is natural that they, being the center of informative message are placed at the end of the sentence. Besides, a short, compared with the noun predicate can not bear the emphatic sense of a large group of nouns.

Supplementation happens to be very frequent when translating texts on International politics because we do not always have corresponding words for some English or American notions., I have come to conclusion that the above mentioned changes are necessary while processing a translation of Political literature from English into Russian.discussing the lexical problems of translation I considered lexical-semantic features of both languages and investigated such cases as difference in word volume, word combinability, I have also considered contextual meaning of words in the process of translation. In addition I investigated the emotional coloring that plays an important role while processing a translation of Political Literature.use of words of abstract meaning strongly differs in various languages. Therefore arises the necessity of concrete definition in translating.the study of stylistic transformation during translation I found, that the repetition is widely used with stylistic purposes in newspaper publicity. In these cases the translator is compelled to apply stylistic changes, make substitution or omission.

Therefore a translator, majoring in the translation of Politics should have a good command not only of English itself, but should know the principles of International politics and other Political sciences.wind up this discourse, I would like to remind you, that while our country is rapidly integrating into the International community, the need of highly experienced translators of Political literature will be evident to make the International Events easily accessible to general public.

References

1.Fathy A. Osman. Senior interpreter/translator, IMF, Washington, DC

2.In other words - a course book on translation. Mona Baker, London and New York.

.The Craft of Translation, John Biguenet & Rainer Schulte, The University of Chicago Press.

.Translation features, Basnett-McGuire, New York Publishing house.

.A course book on Military Translation, Ministry of Defense of the USSR, Moscow.

.Translation difficulties, T. R. Levitskaya & A. M. Fitterman, "International Relations" Publishing house, Moscow.

.Difficulties of translation from English into Russian, Zrajevskaya L. M. & Belyaeva, Moscow Publishing House.

.Translation and linguistics, SchIitzer A. D.

.English Grammar, L. S. Barhudarov & D. A. Schteling, Moscow.

.Exercise book on translation of humanitarian texts, Malchevskaya, Saint Petersburg.

.America and Russian and the Cold War, Walter LaFeber, 6th Edition, Cornell University.

.Comparative Politics, Washington State University.

.International Conflict Cooperation and Management, Slippery Rock University, Pennsylvania.

14.www.worldtranslationservice.com

.www.translateweb.org

.www.monabaker. trans.com

.www.chicagopress.com

18.www.garethjones.org