The American system of school education
МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ
БЕЛАРУСЬ
Учреждение образования
«Гомельский государственный
университет
имени Франциска Скорины»
Факультет иностранных языков
Кафедра теории и практики английского
языка
Курсовая работаAmerican system of school education
Исполнитель
студент группы A-22
____________ Е.Р. Карпов
Научный руководитель
преподаватель ____________ О.Н. Бахрамова
Гомель 2014
Contents
Introduction
1 School education system in the USA
.1 History of school education system in the USA
.2 The role of school education in the USA
Organisation of educational process in American
schools
.1 Types of schools
.2 Levels of school education
3 Advantages and Problems of the American system of
school education
3.1 Advantages of the American system of school
education
.2 Problems in the American system of school education
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The present paper aims to briefly describe the important
features and general characteristics of school education in the United States.
It is important to note that, due to the highly decentralized nature of U.S.
education, policies and practices can vary considerably from state to state and
from school district to school district. This course paper cites national
averages and general patterns of education practice.structure of the paper
consists of 32 pages and includes the introduction, the body, conclusion and
the list of references.United States has a highly decentralized system of
education. The Tenth Amendment (1791) of the U.S. Constitution (1787) states:
“The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor
prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to
the people.” Therefore, the general authority to create and administer public
schools is reserved for the states. There is no national school system nor are
there national framework laws that prescribe curricula or control most other
aspects of education. The federal government, although playing an important
role in education, does not establish or license schools or govern educational
institutions at any level.decentralized nature of U.S. education has its
origins in the early history of the United States. In the 17th and early 18th
centuries, what was to become the United States began as separate colonies
established by settlers from several European countries. In the 13 British
colonies that formed the original United States, the colonial governments or,
in some colonies, local communities were responsible for education. It was
customary for each locality to establish and support its own school(s). Each
community educated its children according to its priorities, values and needs.
This history helps explain why states and local governments continue to
exercise a significant degree of authority over elementary and secondary
education policy and administration. Individual postsecondary institutions have
also traditionally enjoyed considerable independence since the founding of the
country, and they continue to be highly autonomous to the present day.
1 School education system in the USA
1.1 History of the school education system in the USA
The first American schools in the thirteen original
colonies opened in the 17th century. Boston Latin School
<#"876339.files/image001.gif">
Picture 2.1 - Diagram of education in the United States
high school is a school attended after junior high school.
High school is often used instead of senior high school and distinguished from
junior high school. High school usually runs either from 9th through 12th or
10th through 12th grade. The students in these grades are commonly referred to
as freshmen (grade 9), sophomores (grade 10), juniors (grade 11) and seniors
(grade 12)., at the high school level, students take a broad variety of classes
without special emphasis in any particular subject. Students are required to
take a certain minimum number of mandatory subjects, but may choose additional
subjects (“electives”) to fill out their required hours of learning
[7].following minimum courses of study in mandatory subjects are required in
nearly all U.S. high schools:
• Science (usually three years minimum, normally biology,
chemistry and physics);
• Mathematics (usually four years minimum, normally including
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, and frequently pre-calculus, statistics,
and/or calculus);
• English (usually four years minimum, including literature,
humanities, composition, oral languages, etc.);
• Social sciences (usually three years minimum, including
various history, government/economics courses);
• Physical education (at least one year).states require a
“health” course in which students learn about anatomy, nutrition, first aid,
sexuality, drug awareness and birth control. Anti-drug use programs are also
usually part of health courses. In many cases, however, options are provided
for students to “test out” of this requirement or complete independent study to
meet it. Foreign language and some form of art education are also a mandatory
part of the curriculum in some schools.high schools provide Advanced Placement
(AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses. These are special forms of
honors classes where the curriculum is more challenging and lessons more
aggressively paced than standard courses. AP or IB courses are usually taken
during the 11th or 12th grade of high school, but may be taken as early as 9th grade
[8].may also study from a wide range of electives.
.3 School facilities and classrooms
effective school facility is responsive to the changing
programs of educational delivery, and at a minimum should provide a physical
environment that is comfortable, safe, secure, accessible, well illuminated,
well ventilated, and aesthetically pleasing. The school facility consists of
not only the physical structure and the variety of building systems, such as
mechanical, plumbing, electrical and power, telecommunications, security, and
fire suppression systems. The facility also includes furnishings, materials and
supplies, equipment and information technology, as well as various aspects of
the building grounds, namely, athletic fields, playgrounds, areas for outdoor
learning, and vehicular access and parking [9].
The school facility is much more than a passive container of
the educational process: it is, rather, an integral component of the conditions
of learning. The layout and design of a facility contributes to the place
experience of students, educators, and community members. Depending on the
quality of its design and management, the facility can contribute to a sense of
ownership, safety and security, personalization and control, privacy as well as
sociality, and spaciousness or crowdedness. When planning, designing, or
managing the school facility, these facets of place experience should, when
possible, be taken into consideration. During strategic long-range educational
planning, unmet facility space needs often emerge. The goal of educational
planning is to develop, clarify, or review the educational mission, vision,
philosophy, curriculum, and instructional delivery. Educational planning may
involve a variety of school and community workshops and surveys to identify and
clarify needs and sharpen the vision of the district. Long-range planning
activities, such as demographic studies, financing options, site acquisitions,
and community partnering opportunities are often initiated by the district
administration as a response to the results of educational planning. An outcome
of long-range planning is the development of a comprehensive capital
improvement program to address unmet facility needs.district superintendent
appoints a steering committee to oversee the details of the capital improvement
program. The responsibility of the steering committee includes the selection of
various consultants, the review of planning and design options, and the
reporting of recommendations to the school board for a final decision.
Depending on the needs of the district, one of the first tasks of the steering
committee is to retain a variety of consultants. Educational and design
consultants, financial consultants, bond counsels, investment bankers, and
public relations consultants are retained to perform pre-referendum planning
activities during which project scope, budget, financing, legal issues, and
schedule are defined. Once project feasibility is established, a public
referendum package is developed and presented to the taxpaying public through
public hearings. Upon passage of the public referendum, more detailed facility
planning of the school can begin.architect is often selected to assist in
facility planning in cooperation with the educational planning consultant and
in-house facility staff. The school board, as the owner, enters into a contract
for services with the chosen architect. The architect, in turn, negotiates
contracts with a variety of consultants, including interior designers,
landscape architects, mechanical, electrical, and civil engineers, and land
surveyors.facility planning process at its best involves an assessment of
functional needs in light of the educational program developed during
educational planning. There are several names for this process: Educators refer
to the development of educational specifications, while architects refer to it
as facility programming. Facility planning includes any or all of the following
activities: feasibility studies, district master planning, site selection,
needs assessment, and project cost analysis. Spatial requirements and
relationships between various program elements are established. The outcome of
the facility planning process is a public facility program, or educational
specifications document, that outlines physical space requirements and
adjacencies and special design criteria the school facility must meet
[10].design phase of the process, which includes schematic design, design
development, and construction documents and specifications, can last from six
months to one year. Each step in the design process involves more detailed and
specific information about the technical aspects of the building systems,
components, and assemblies. The design process requires school board decisions
and approval, with each phase offering more detailed descriptions of the scope,
budget, and schedule. The products of this phase include sketches, drawings,
models, and technical reports, which are shared with the school and community
through public hearings, workshops, and other forms of public relations and
community involvement. Community participation during the earliest stages of
the design phase can be as critical for stakeholder support as it was in the
educational planning process.are several construction delivery methods
available to the school district: competitive bidding, design/build, and
construction management. Each state has evolved its own laws regulating the
acceptable forms of construction project delivery. Competitive bidding is still
the most common form of construction delivery. It allows contractors in each
trade, such as general, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing, to compete for
individual prime contracts and form separate contracts with the school
district. In principle, it provides the most open and fair competition
appropriate for a public sector project; however, project communication and
coordination may ultimately affect schedule and budget. Design/build is most
popular with private sector owners but is occasionally used in the public
sector. Under a design/build contract, the owner contracts with one firm that
completes both design and construction of the project under one contract. Cost
and time savings are possible but often with a loss in quality of the product.
Construction management is a service that often is established simultaneously
with the hiring of the architect. A construction manager's responsibility is to
act as project manager throughout the design and construction process,
coordinating the project budget and schedule along the way. A fourth form of
construction delivery is actually a comprehensive project management delivery
service, which includes construction management but also extends from
pre-referendum through occupancy and even facility management, offering
one-stop shopping for facility development. Large school districts that have
multiple projects often contract with project management services. Project
management firms offer a wide array of financial, legal, and construction
services promising economies of scale.the competitive bidding process, the next
phase of the school building process is that of bidding and negotiation. An
Invitation for Bids is publicized to obtain bids from prime construction
contractors. Most states require the school district to accept the lowest
responsible and responsive bidder. However, the school district reserves the
right to reject all bids. Once low bids are accepted, the school district, as
owner, negotiates a contract with each prime contractor. The architect
represents the owner in the construction phase, but the contract and legal
relationship is between the school district, as owner, and each prime
contractor. The construction of the school can last from twelve to eighteen
months, depending on the project scope, material selections, lead times for
shipment to the site, weather, unforeseen subsurface site conditions, and a
variety of other factors. With the use of school buildings being tied to the
school year schedule, project phasing is always an issue that needs to be
addressed. Other factors that can escalate cost and slow the project are change
orders to rectify unforeseen conditions or errors and omissions in the original
construction documents. Once the architect is satisfied that the project is
complete, a Certificate of Substantial Completion is issued and the owner can
legally occupy the facility.the planning, design, and construction of the
school facility may take two to three years, the management of it will last the
entire life cycle of the facility. At the beginning of the twenty-first
century, the mean age of a school building in the United States as forty-two
years, with 28 percent of school buildings built before 1950. Many of the
building materials, furnishings, and equipment will not last half that long and
will require constant upkeep, maintenance, and inevitable replacement to defer
building obsolescence.costs of managing school facilities have historically
received much less attention than facility planning. The percentage of the
operating budget for the maintenance and management of school facilities has
steadily decreased, creating a capital renewal crisis as a result of years of
deferred maintenance at all levels of education.practice requires that a
comprehensive facility maintenance program be established and monitored by the
school district. The maintenance program often includes several distinct
programs, including deferred, preventive, repair/upkeep, and emergency
maintenance. Responsibility for facility management is divided between the
district office and the school site, with the principal being the primary
administrator responsible for the day-to-day operation of the school, including
custodial, food, and transportation services. Custodians are typically hired by
the school district but managed by the principal. Custodial staff is generally
responsible for cleaning the building; monitoring the mechanical, electrical,
and plumbing systems; and providing general maintenance of both building and
grounds. District staff is responsible for long-term maintenance programs and
the procurement of outsourced services for specialized maintenance
projects.environmental quality issues have emerged over the past few decades,
such as classroom acoustics, indoor air quality, water quality, energy
conservation, and abatement of asbestos, radon, and other hazardous materials.
Many of these issues require the services of facility consultants hired through
the district. Other issues for the building-level administrator include safety
and security, vandalism and threats, and acts of violence and terrorism. All of
these functions must be conducted within a constantly changing set of
government mandates, such as energy deregulation, accessibility guidelines,
codes, and other regulations and guidelines at the state and federal
levels.communities recognize that in addition to school facilities being cost
effective, they should be more learner-centered, developmentally and age
appropriate, safe, comfortable, accessible, flexible, diverse, and equitable.
By location of new facilities in residential neighborhoods and partnering with
other community-based organizations, schools are becoming true community
centers. In addition, schools are taking advantage of educational resources in
the community, as well as partnering with museums, zoos, libraries, and other
public institutions and local businesses.on mounting evidence that smaller
schools lead to improved social climate as well as better achievement, school
leaders have begun to create smaller schools or have created schools within
schools.design of safe schools increasingly recognizes the desirability of
providing natural, unobtrusive surveillance mechanisms, rather than installing
checkpoints and security guards. Smaller scaled school buildings allow for both
natural surveillance and territorial ownership, where students and teachers are
on familiar terms, thereby decreasing the possibility that any one student is
overlooked.self-contained classroom can no longer provide the variety of learning
settings necessary to successfully support project-based, real-world authentic
learning. Research indicates that smaller class size is a factor contributing
to improved achievement. Learning settings are being designed to support
individualized, self-directed learning and small informal group learning, in
addition to traditional large-group instruction. Rather than lining up
classrooms along a long corridor, instructional areas are being organized
around central cores of shared instructional support.trend in the provision of
professional space for teachers has emerged as well. Teacher office space,
including desk and storage, phone/fax, and information technologies, is seen as
essential to the development of teachers as professionals.technology is precipitating
a variety of changes in the organizational and physical form of schools. With
respect to instructional processes, technology is facilitating the movement
toward project-based, self-directed learning and individualized instruction. As
learning becomes increasingly virtual, web-based, and wireless, it still must
physically take place somewhere. As information technology is becoming
ubiquitous, more schools are decentralizing technology throughout the school
building and across the community.trend toward smart buildings, or buildings
that are designed and constructed to integrate the technologies of instruction,
telecommunications, and building systems, will have increased responsiveness to
occupant needs as well as the educational process., because of the recognition
that spending too much time in buildings can be detrimental not only to health
but also to learning, school buildings will begin to connect more to the
natural environment visually, aurally, and kinesthetically by including
transitional indoor and outdoor learning spaces [11]., the American school year
traditionally begins at the end of August or the day after Labor Day in
September, after a traditional summer recess. Children customarily advance
together from one grade to the next as a single cohort or "class"
upon reaching the end of each school year in late May or early June. There are
eight years of elementary schooling. The elementary school is followed by four
years of secondary school, or high school. Often the last two years of elementary
and the first years of secondary school are combined into a junior high school.
The costs of managing school facilities have historically received much less
attention than facility planning.
3 Advantages and problems of the American system of school
education
.1 Advantages of the American system of school education
out where you want your child to go to school is not an easy
decision. Parents want the best educations for their children. There are many
different types of schools that are available to students, and each type has
its advantages and disadvantages. Traditional schools, more commonly known as
public schools, are usually the first option that parents explore when
considering school choices. While they vary from school to school, there are
advantages that all traditional schools have in common [12, p. 16].traditional
schools are regulated and monitored closely by the state, you can be sure that
the teachers are properly qualified to teach their respective grade levels or
subject areas. Teachers at traditional schools most often hold a bachelor’s
degree or higher in addition to being state-certified. On the contrary, charter
and private school teachers are sometimes given more leeway in their
certification requirements. While teachers at these schools may be college
graduates and hold subject-area expertise, they are not guaranteed to be
state-certified to teach a certain grade level or subject.part of the public
school system ensures the maximum state and federal funding in traditional schools.
Having access to more funds allows traditional schools to have high-quality
resources such as updated textbooks and access to technology like computers and
Smartboards. Adequate funding also provides traditional schools with the option
to offer students a more well-rounded educational experience that includes art
and music studies, academic clubs and sports teams.some studies claim that
students who attend private or charter schools show higher levels of
achievement than their counterparts in traditional schools, it has been proven
that students who attend traditional schools actually outperform students who
attend alternative schools, especially in grades 4 through 8. After adjusting
for student characteristics such as background and poverty level, a National
Center for Educational Statistics study found that traditional school students
do better in reading and math. Additionally, low-performing or at-risk students
have shown increased achievement when attending traditional schools as opposed
to charter or private schools [13, p. 45].schools are required to offer
educational services to all students who seek them. As a result, traditional
schools usually have a diverse population of students coming from a vast number
of cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds. At a traditional school, students
are presented with the task of learning how to interact, get along with and
solve problems with peers who are different from themselves. The same
opportunities may not be available to students who are homeschooled or who
attend private schools. Attending a traditional school prepares students for
life in a diverse society [14, p. 228].
.2 Problems in the American system of education
in America is not as effective as it should be because of a
number of problems inherent within the system. Because of the way issues of
political and social differences have infiltrated educational policy and
decision-making, students are not being offered a sound way of dealing with
diversity or understanding how to manage differences. Furthermore, in the midst
of more large scale debates centering upon sociopolitical questions, there are
more concrete problems that are not being dealt with such as the issue of
cheating in schools and even the imbalance and potential unfairness of the grading
system [15, p. 367].many cases, it seems that the problems in the schools are
related to an inability to make important decisions about the future of
education in America. Instead of focusing on the areas of true and immediate
significant importance and value, time is being wasted by infighting and
indecision. Instead of wasting time of these debates, the larger issues that
have an effect on the system as a whole and outcome of educated young people
should be addressed and these other side arguments should be saved until a time
comes that education in America is improve [16, p. 135].of the problems with
the American education system is that it has yet to form a consensus about the
role of religion in the classroom. While this is not a statement meant to argue
whether or not religion has a valid place in the public schools, it is fair to
state that this is certainly an area of contention as opposing sides attempt to
standardize how religion is treated, particularly in textbooks. Because of a
lack of agreement, proponents on both sides use litigation and other actions to
determine religion’s status in schools and this has caused textbook publishers
and other educational entities to have to take a dramatic stance. For instance,
some argue that the efforts to stay away from this debate “has pushed textbook
publishers to excise religion altogether, even from history class. It is not
just the teaching of religion that has become taboo…It is the teaching of
religion”. No matter where one stands in the midst of this controversy, it is
necessary to at least admit that a large portion of Western history revolves
around religious ideas [17, p. 54].a result of this fact, it seems as though
these textbook publishers who are afraid to include anything of a religious nature
are doing students a disservice since they are denying the legitimate reasons
for many historical and social truths of history. In other words, political
correctness and oversensitivity about religious issues have clouded education
and caused students to have a rather skewed view of society since they are only
being offered a rather whitewashed version of it. When Goodman suggests that
American schoolchildren need to be taught the importance of diversity by
stating, “it is not that Americans deny their differences or always resolve
them, but that we have managed, until now, to live with them” she makes an
important point about diverse thinking. As her statement also makes clear,
American education cannot gloss over history and society without cheating students
out of a deeper understanding of differences in opinion. By offering young
people only one narrow way of thinking because of political reasons, it limits
their scope and ability to deal with such social difference later in life.is
not becoming more ineffective simply because of political wrangling about the
role of religion in schools, but also because there is a lack of understanding
about moral issues, such as plagiarism. While its another argument entirely
about whether or not the two are interdependent in some ways (religion and
simple morals/ethics) it is noteworthy that there is a lack of ethical
stringency in schools. When it has been suggested that out of the top American
students many cheated and had ambivalent views about it, it becomes clear that
there is a lapse in ethical lapse in the system itself. According to one of the
statistics in “Their Cheating Hearts” by William Raspberry, “80 percent had
engaged in academic cheating and thought cheating was commonplace. Moreover,
most saw cheating as a minor infraction” [18, p. 241].is not just that so many
students are cheating but that so few think it is not a major issue. Even
still, as Raspberry notes, many of them contend that they would wish to live in
a community where people “adhered to the highest ethical standards”. This
disparity in what students believe about plagiarism and what they practice
highlights a significant shortcoming in the education system since it seems it
only teaches young people what is wrong but does not perhaps address how they
should apply this to their lives. Again, one must wonder if the fear of
controversy over moral issues has extended so far that it is shortchanging
students of valuable information that will allow them to make informed,
responsible, and ethical decisions. Instead of getting caught up in debates of
great magnitude (the role of religion in schools, for instance) these questions
should still be posed but should also take into account that children need to
be taught important ethical lessons while the argument rages on.important issue
that must be addressed in order to help save the deteriorating state of the
American educational system is that of the grading system. Educational
researchers, students, and teachers at all levels have confronted the issue of
possible imbalance in the system even though, according to one opinion, “No one
has ever demonstrated that students today get A’s for the same work they used
to receive B’s or C’s”. In other words, even though there is an ages-old debate
about the grading system it is generally something that comes and goes yet is
without a great deal of merit. In many ways, it seems as though there is a
great deal of time being wasted within the educational system (on the part of
educational researchers, critics, students, and even teachers) about this
supposed problem. Instead of focusing on legitimate issues (such as cheating)
again it seems there are useless or debates that cannot be won that are taking
up precious time and resources. Furthermore, just as in the case with the
problems arising from religious debates in schools, the question of political
correctness is in the background as thinkers wrestle with the possibility of
grade inflation and what is defined by “too much concern about the students’
self-esteem” [19, p. 117].more ethereal questions are being posed when the real
problem lies in the fact that there is no consensus about this issue among
others. This is another clear case of the educational system failing because no
one can agree about important factors affecting education in America. Although
it would be impossible to claim that is one standard by which students would be
judged, wasting time on this debate detracts from more important issues such as
how to improve testing scores, how to make sure students are maximizing their
educational experience, and whether or not the system is attempting to make
better citizens out of young people.though all of the problems that have been
addressed thus far are important, it is necessary for thinkers to look at and
offer commentary on larger societal education issues. In the case of academic
dishonesty there is a move to look at how students view the issue from a larger
cultural/social perspective and this should occur in other educational debates
as well. While it would be a massive undertaking to change the way high schools
function at this point when the system is already weak, Botstein observes how
culture and social changes are having an effect on even the most basic
assumptions we have about schools. For instance, “The primary cause for the
inadequacy of high school rests with irreversible changes in adolescent
development”. While this is biological since adolescents come to maturity more
quickly than they did in the past, it is also a matter of culture. Influences
ranging from the home to the media are making adolescents feel like actual
adults and thus perhaps high school is outdated since “High school was designed
to deal with large children. It is now faced with young adults whose adult
behavior has already begun”. This kind of thinking moves the questions about
how to fix education forward since it accounts for new developments with the
focus of the schools-the young people themselves as opposed to the theorists
and proponents of morally or politically-based arguments.is clear that there
are serious problems with the modern American educational system. As it stands,
the solutions to the problems inherent to the American system of education are
within reach if there could be common agreement about what some of the basic
needs of students are instead of the less concrete concerns. Still, it is
important to recognize that all the theories that have been put forth about
what is wrong with schools are still important, but that they must not
overshadow the commitment to making education more effective in the here and
now. If culture and the rapidly changing state of society can be taken into
account, new ideas about education can be useful. If, however, debates rest on
stagnant arguments that cannot ever be won by either side without even slight
consensus, then education will continue to suffer [20, p. 95]., there are
advantages that all traditional schools have in common. There are many
different types of schools that are available to students, and each type has
its advantages and disadvantages. Teachers at traditional schools most often
hold a bachelor’s degree or higher in addition to being state-certified. The
problems in the schools are related to an inability to make important decisions
about the future of education in America. Even though all of the problems that
have been addressed thus far are important, it is necessary for thinkers to
look at and offer commentary on larger societal education issues.
Conclusion
in the United States is a tremendously complex and
far-reaching endeavor that touches on almost every citizen. Therefore, it
should not be surprising that education ranks as one of the most important
public issues in the United States.landmark publication A Nation at Risk (1983)
declared that the U.S. education system was in dire need of improvement. Since
then, efforts to reform education in the United States have been steadily under
way, and standards, evaluation and accountability are now explicit components
of U.S. education. Of course, not all parties always agree on their definition
and implementation., nearly every state in the country has developed and
published standards for what students should know and be able to do. Most
states also have, or are in the process of developing measurements to assess
whether students have met the standards. And policymakers and the public are
increasingly interested in holding the education sector accountable for the
quality of its graduates and program offerings.in the United States is
primarily the domain of the states and local school districts. Nevertheless,
the federal government can significantly influence educational quality through
education-related legislation and programs.landmark No Child Left Behind Act
increases federal funding for elementary and secondary education and allows
states greater flexibility in how they spend federal funds for education, while
requiring states to set standards for student achievement and holding
educational institutions accountable for results.a result of the law, by June
2003 every state-as well as Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia-had in
place a new accountability plan outlining a strategy for improving student
learning and ensuring that all students, including those who are disadvantaged,
achieve academic proficiency.significant reforms at the federal level and
ongoing innovation at the state and local levels, education in the United
States is continually evolving and progressing toward the goal of ensuring that
all children can achieve their highest potential as individuals and as
successful citizens in a free society and global economy.
school
education american
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