A contrastive analysis of consonants of English and Turkish languages
A contrastive analysis of
consonants of English and Turkish languages
Content
Introduction1. Consonant systems of English and
Turkish languages
1.1 Classification of English consonant system
1.2 Classification of Turkish consonant system
.3 Summary2. General similarities and differences of
the consonant sounds in English and Turkish
Introduction
study of language has been a constant preoccupation with more
or less professional researchers for thousands of years. Since the earliest
times, much before the birth of linguistics as a distinct scholarly discipline,
people have been aware of the essential role language plays not only in their
everyday life, but also as a characteristic feature of mankind, radically
differentiating human beings from other species of the animal kingdom. fact
that language acts as a fundamental link between ourselves and the world around
us and that in the absence of language our relation to the universe and to our
fellows is dramatically impaired is something that people have been (at least
intuitively) aware of since the beginning of history. Suffice it to mention
that different cultures seem to associate speech problems with intellectual
deficiencies. The origin of language (believed to be divine in most ancient cultures),
the relation between language and thinking, the question if we can think
without the help of language (and if we can, what kind of thinking is that),
the manner in which human beings (who are not, obviously, born with the ability
to speak, but have, however, an innate capacity for language acquisition) come,
with an amazing rapidity, to successfully use language, beginning with the very
first stages of their existence (the acquisition of language actually parallels
the birth of the child’s self-consciousness and the latter can hardly be
imagined without the former) have puzzled researchers for centuries and none of
these questions has actually received a satisfactory and universally accepted
answer.is obviously the main system available for us, not only for knowing the
world and understanding it, but also for accumulating, storing and
communicating information. Language can thus be understood as the main system
we have for communicating among us. All the other systems of conveying
information are actually based on this essential, fundamental one.
Communication by means of language can thus be understood as a complex process
actually consisting of several stages. Any act of communication basically takes
place between two participants: on the one hand we have the source of the
information, the person who has to communicate something, the sender of the
message that contains the information, and on the other hand we need a second
party, the recipient, the addressee of the message, the beneficiary of the communication
act, in other words the person(s) to whom the information contained in the
message is addressed. Since the sender has to convey a message, and the
transmission is to take place on the basis of a system of signs (a code), the
first thing the sender has to do is to encode or codify his message, in other
words to render the contents of the message by means of the signs of the
respective code (the language) .The next stage is obviously represented by the
transmission of the message proper, which can be achieved in several ways
(depending of the type of communication; e.g. written or oral). Once the
message reaches the recipient, the process should unfold in the opposite
direction. That is, the message gets to the recipient in an encoded form so that
the recipient has to decode it and grasp its meaning.importance of sounds as
vehicles of meaning is something people have been aware of for thousands of
years. However, systematic studies on the speech sounds only appeared with the
development of modern sciences. The term phonetics used in connection with such
studies comes from Greek and its origins can be traced back to the verb
phфnein, to speak, in its turn related to phфnз, sound. The end of the 18th
century witnessed a revival of the interest in the studying of the sounds of
various languages and the introduction of the term phonology. The latter comes
to be, however, distinguished from the former only more than a century later
with the development of structuralism which emphasizes the essential contrastive
role of classes of sounds which are labeled phonemes. The terms continue to be
used, however, indiscriminately until the prestige of phonology as a distinct
discipline is finally established in the first half of the 20th century. Though
there is no universally accepted point of view about a clear-cut border line
between the respective domains of phonetics and phonology as, indeed, we cannot
talk about a phonological system ignoring the phonetic aspects it involves and,
on the other hand, any phonetic approach should take into account the
phonological system that is represented by any language, most linguists will
agree about some fundamental distinctions between the two.great interest to
compare studying of languages of different structures by scientists is
explained first of all that it can help to ascertain general and regular rules
of language communication. This diploma paper is devoted to comparative
analysis of consonant systems of English and Turkish languages. compare the
analysis we outcome of that fact that the languages being the most important
means of communication and first of all appears in sound speech. That is why
the study of foreign languages begins with the creation of pronouncing
skills.possession of new pronouncing skillss is accompanied by some
difficulties caused by means of interference, i.e. unconscious transference
pronouncing norms of native language to pronouncing norms of studying language.
teacher who is aware of interference of native language has a possibility to
prevent mistakes, to work out effective system of preventive exercises, which
can foresee the mistakes, when the sounds coincide a teacher can use the skills
of positive transference of norm of native language.
The novelty of the study. Novelty of
the diploma work is that it adds some details to what was studied before. This
theme is actual for today and will always be. Many linguists are interested in
the features of consonant systems in English and their equivalents and
opposites in the Turkish language. Due to the analysis which is used in this
diploma work to determine the features of consonant systems and to reveal their
equivalents in the Turkish language, it is possible to notice the differences
and peculiarities of consonant sounds and the way of their transference into
the Turkish language.
The subject of the study is peculiarities of consonant
systems and their equivalents and opposites in the Modern Turkish language. studying
of the peculiarities of native and studying languages has a great significance
when teaching.
Actuality of this theme is that
practice of English pronunciation, especially on the primary level. comparing
any languages, if the languages of one group or different, similar or opposite
features are appeared. The results of comparative linguistic analysis help to
prevent on the scientific level the possibilities of interference and foresee
the forecast of possible mistakes. the very beginning of studying the language
it is very important to watch thoroughly for a learner to pronounce the sounds,
to have a right intonation. It is impossible to miss any wrong pronunciation of
sounds. It is almost impossible to correct wrong pronunciation at the end of studying.
That is why the primary stage in pronunciation of foreign language is the most
important. is known that English belongs to German group of Indo-European
languages and Turkish belongs to the Turkic branch of the Altaic language
family are different from one another by their sound characteristics. It plays
a great role in the method of language teaching. purpose of this diploma paper
is the study of theoretical basis of English phonetics, comparing with the
theoretical basis of Turkish phonetics, to make comparative analysis of
consonant systems in modern English and Turkish languages.English language
gradually becomes one of the most widely used languages in the world. There are
large numbers of students in institutions of higher and further education who
are learning English for many purposes: as the medium of the literature and
culture of English-speaking countries; for access to scholarly and
technological publications; to qualify as English teachers, translators, or
interpreters; to improve their chances of employment or promotion in such areas
as tourist trade, international progammes for economic or military aid. In
countries where it is a second language, English is commonly used as the medium
for higher education, at least for scientific and technological subjects. of
this diploma paper is that it will be useful both to teachers, and to students.
In teaching activity it can be applied in studying of such courses as practical
course of translation, theoretical course of translation, practicum on culture
of speech communication, etc. The analysis made in this diploma work will help
to predict mistakes while speaking, will help to practical exercises for
development of skills of phonetics. main task is to make comparative analysis
of consonant systems in modern English and Turkish languages, find similarities
and differences between English and Turkish consonant systems, to define
difficulties which encounter the students while reading the consonant phonemes,
which are necessary to overcome, and also to study the theoretical basis of
English phonetics and compare them with the theoretical basis of Turkish in
order to understand the structure of Modern English language.
The structure of the degree work. The present diploma work
consists of the introduction, two chapters, the conclusion and bibliography and
references.introduction explains the actuality, the novelty and the subject of
the study as well as the objective and tasks, the theoretical and practical
value of the study; enumerates the methods of research.I is devoted to the
English consonant system and their classification as well as the consonant
systems of Turkish language and their classification It includes the survey of
various classifications of consonant. At the end of the chapter there is a
summary. II includes the comparative analysis of consonant systems of English
and Turkish languages. This analysis can give us a possibility to find some
similarities and differences between the consonants of English and Turkish
languages. conclusion sums up the results of the study.references we can find
the general tables of consonant sounds.
Chapter 1. Consonant systems of English and Turkish languages
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a sound in spoken
language that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the vocal tract
sufficient to cause audible turbulence. The word consonant comes from Latin and
means "sounding with" or "sounding together," the idea
being that consonants don't sound on their own, but occur only with a nearby
vowel, which is the case in Latin. This conception of consonants, however, does
not reflect the modern linguistic understanding which defines consonants in
terms of vocal tract constriction.the number of consonants in the world's
languages is much greater than the number of consonant letters in any one
alphabet, linguists have devised systems such as the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique symbol to each possible consonant. In fact,
the Latin alphabet, which is used to write English, has fewer consonant letters
than English has consonant sounds, so some letters represent more than one
consonant, and digraphs like "sh" and "th" are used to
represent some sounds. Many speakers aren't even aware that the "th"
sound in "this" is a different sound from the "th" sound in
"thing" (in the IPA they're [ð] and [θ], respectively).consonant
can be distinguished by several features:
· The manner of articulation is the
method that the consonant is articulated, such as nasal (through the nose),
stop (complete obstruction of air), or approximant (vowel like).
· The place of articulation is where in
the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech
organs are involved. Places include bilabial (both lips), alveolar (tongue
against the gum ridge), and velar (tongue against soft palate). Additionally,
there may be a simultaneous narrowing at another place of articulation, such as
palatalisation or pharyngealisation.
· The phonation of a consonant is how
the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. When the vocal cords vibrate
fully, the consonant is called voiced; when they do not vibrate at all, it's
voiceless.
· The voice onset time (VOT) indicates
the timing of the phonation. Aspiration is a feature of VOT.
· The airstream mechanism is how the
air moving through the vocal tract is powered. Most languages have exclusively
pulmonic egressive consonants, which use the lungs and diaphragm, but
ejectives, clicks, and implosives use different mechanisms.
· The length is how long the obstruction
of a consonant lasts. This feature is borderline distinctive in English, as in
"wholly" [hoʊlli] vs. "holy" [hoʊli], but cases are limited to
morpheme boundaries. Unrelated roots are differentiated in various languages
such as Italian, Japanese and Finnish, with two length levels,
"single" and "geminate". Estonian and some Sami languages
have three phonemic lengths: short, geminate, and long geminate, although the
distinction between the geminate and overlong geminate includes suprasegmental
features.
· The articulatory force is how much
muscular energy is involved. This has been proposed many times, but no
distinction relying exclusively on force has ever been demonstrated. English
consonants can be classified by a combination of these features, such as
"voiceless alveolar stop consonant" [t]. In this case the airstream
mechanism is omitted.linguistics (articulatory phonetics), manner of
articulation describes how the tongue, lips, and other speech organs involved
in making a sound make contact. Often the concept is only used for the
production of consonants. For any place of articulation, there may be several
manners, and therefore several homorganic consonants.parameter of manner is
stricture, that is, how closely the speech organs approach one another.
Parameters other than stricture are those involved in the ar sounds (taps and
trills), and the sibilancy of fricatives. Often nasality and laterality are
included in manner, but phoneticians such as Peter Ladefoged consider them to
be independent.
Stricture
From greatest to least stricture, speech sounds may be
classified along a cline as stop consonants (with occlusion, or blocked
airflow), fricative consonants (with partially blocked and therefore strongly
turbulent airflow), approximants (with only slight turbulence), and vowels
(with full unimpeded airflow). Affricates often behave as if they were
intermediate between stops and fricatives, but phonetically they are sequences
of stop plus fricative., sounds may move along this cline toward less stricture
in a process called lenition.
Other
parameters
Sibilants are distinguished from other fricatives by the
shape of the tongue and how the airflow is directed over the teeth. Fricatives
at coronal places of articulation may be sibilant or non-sibilant, sibilants
being the more common.and flaps are similar to very brief stops. However, their
articulation and behavior is distinct enough to be considered a separate
manner, rather than just length.[specify]involve the vibration of
one of the speech organs. Since trilling is a separate parameter from
stricture, the two may be combined. Increasing the stricture of a typical trill
results in a trilled fricative. Trilled affricates are also known.airflow may
be added as an independent parameter to any speech sound. It is most commonly
found in nasal stops and nasal vowels, but nasal fricatives, taps, and
approximants are also found. When a sound is not nasal, it is called oral. An
oral stop is often called a plosive, while a nasal stop is generally just
called a nasal.is the release of airflow at the side of the tongue. This can
also be combined with other manners, resulting in lateral approximants (the
most common), lateral flaps, and lateral fricatives and affricates.
Individual
manners
· Plosive, or oral stop, where there is
complete occlusion (blockage) of both the oral and nasal cavities of the vocal
tract, and therefore no air flow. Examples include English /p t k/ (voiceless)
and /b d g/ (voiced). If the consonant is voiced, the voicing is the only sound
made during occlusion; if it is voiceless, a plosive is completely silent. What
we hear as a /p/ or /k/ is the effect that the onset of the occlusion has on
the preceding vowel, and well as the release burst and its effect on the
following vowel. The shape and position of the tongue (the place of
articulation) determine the resonant cavity that gives different plosives their
characteristic sounds. All languages have plosives.
· Nasal stop, usually shortened to
nasal, where there is complete occlusion of the oral cavity, and the air passes
instead through the nose. The shape and position of the tongue determine the
resonant cavity that gives different nasal stops their characteristic sounds.
Examples include English /m, n/. Nearly all languages have nasals, the only
exceptions being in the area of Puget Sound and a single language on
Bougainville Island.
· Fricative, sometimes called spirant,
where there is continuous frication (turbulent and noisy airflow) at the place
of articulation. Examples include English /f, s/ (voiceless), /v, z/ (voiced),
etc. Most languages have fricatives, though many have only an /s/. However, the
Australian languages are almost completely devoid of fricatives of any kind.
· Sibilants are a type of fricative
where the airflow is guided by a groove in the tongue toward the teeth,
creating a high-pitched and very distinctive sound. These are by far the most
common fricatives. Fricatives at coronal (front of tongue) places of articulation
are usually, though not always, sibilants. English sibilants include /s/ and
/z/.
· Lateral fricatives are a rare type of
fricative, where the frication occurs on one or both sides of the edge of the
tongue. The "ll" of the Welsh language and the "hl" of Zulu
are lateral fricatives.
· Affricate, which begins like a
plosive, but this releases into a fricative rather than having a separate
release of its own. The English letters "ch" and "j"
represent affricates. Affricates are quite common around the world, though less
common than fricatives.
· Flap, often called a tap, is a
momentary closure of the oral cavity. The "tt" of "utter"
and the "dd" of "udder" are pronounced as a flap in North
American English. Many linguists distinguish taps from flaps, but there is no
consensus on what the difference might be. No language relies on such a
difference. There are also lateral flaps.
· Trill, in which the articulator
(usually the tip of the tongue) is held in place, and the airstream causes it
to vibrate. The double "r" of Spanish "perro" is a trill.
Trills and flaps, where there are one or more brief occlusions, constitute a
class of consonant called rhotics.
· Approximant, where there is very
little obstruction. Examples include English /w/ and /r/. In some languages,
such as Spanish, there are sounds which seem to fall between fricative and
approximant.
· One use of the word semivowel is a
type of approximant, pronounced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the
roof of the mouth, so that there is slight turbulence. In English, /w/ is the
semivowel equivalent of the vowel /u/, and /j/ (spelled "y") is the
semivowel equivalent of the vowel /i/ in this usage. Other descriptions use
semivowel for vowel-like sounds that are not syllabic, but do not have the
increased stricture of approximants. These are found as elements in diphthongs.
The word may also be used to cover both concepts.
· Lateral approximants, usually
shortened to lateral, are a type of approximant pronounced with the side of the
tongue. English /l/ is a lateral. Together with the rhotics, which have similar
behavior in many languages, these form a class of consonant called liquids.
Broader
classifications
Manners of articulation with substantial obstruction of the
airflow (plosives, fricatives, affricates) are called obstruents. These are
prototypically voiceless, but voiced obstruents are extremely common as well.
Manners without such obstruction (nasals, liquids, approximants, and also
vowels) are called sonorants because they are nearly always voiced. Voiceless
sonorants are uncommon, but are found in Welsh and Classical Greek (the
spelling "rh"), in Tibetan (the "lh" of Lhasa), and the
"wh" in those dialects of English which distinguish "which"
from "witch".may also be called resonants, and some linguists prefer
that term, restricting the word 'sonorant' to non-vocoid resonants (that is,
nasals and liquids, but not vowels or semi-vowels). Another common distinction
is between stops (plosives and nasals) and continuants (all else); affricates
are considered to be both, because they are sequences of stop plus fricative.
Principles of Classification of English Consonants
The particular quality of a consonant depends on the work of
the vocal cords, the position of the soft palate and the kind of noise that
results when the tongue or the lips obstruct the airflow.
Linguists distinguish two types of articulatory obstruction
that are formed when pronouncing consonants: complete and incomplete.
A complete obstruction is formed when organs of speech come
into contact with each other and the air-passage is blocked.
An incomplete obstruction is formed when articulating organs
(articulators) are held so close to a point of articulation as to narrow, or
constrict, the air-passage without blocking it.
1.1
Classification of English consonant system
There are all in all 24 consonants in the English language
and they are usually classified according to the following four principles:
I. According to the type of obstruction and the manner of
noise production.
II. According to the active organ of speech and the place of
obstruction.
III. According to the work of the vocal cords and the force
of articulation.
IV. According to the position of the soft palate.
1.
According to the Degree of Noise
|
Class A. Noise Consonants
|
Class B. Sonorants
|
Vary: 1. In the manner of
articulation. 2. In the place of articulation. 3. In the work of the vocal
cords. 4. In the force of articulation.
|
Vary: 1. In the manner of
articulation. 2. In the place of articulation. 3. In the position of the
soft palate. 4. In the direction of the air stream.
|
According to the type of obstruction and the manner of noise
production.
) According to the type of obstruction, all English
consonants are divided into occlusive and constrictive.
(A)Occlusive consonants are produced with a complete obstruction
formed by the articulating organs, when the airflow is blocked in the mouth
cavity.
(B)Constrictive consonants are produced with an incomplete or
restricted obstruction, that is by a narrowing of the airflow.
Occlusive consonants may be: (1) noise and (2) sonorants.
the production of occlusive sonorants organs of speech form a
complete obstruction in the mouth cavity, which is not released. The soft
palate is lowered and the air escapes through the nasal cavity. In occlusive
sonorants tone prevails over noise.Turkish occlusive sonorants are: [m], [n].
b) According to the manner of noise production, occlusive
noise consonants are divided into plosive consonants (or stops) and affricates.
the production of occlusive plosives (or stops) active organs
of speech form a complete obstruction to the airflow, which is then released
with a plosion. the English language voiceless occlusive plosives [p, t, k ]
are aspirated, with the exception of the case when they are preceded by [s],
like in clusters [sp, st, sk ].Turkish occlusive plosives are: [p, b, t, d, k',
k' g', g' ].the production of occlusive affricates active organs of speech form
a complete obstruction, which is then released so slowly that a considerable
friction takes place at the point of articulation.Turkish occlusive affricates
are: [C], [G] and [ts].consonants may also be: (1) noise and (2) sonorants.
In the production of noise constrictives active organs of
speech form an incomplete or restricted obstruction.Turkish noise constrictives
are: [ f, v, s, z, S, Z, h ].the production of constrictive sonorants the
air-passage is fairly wide, so that the air passing through the mouth does not
produce audible friction and tone prevails over noise.) According to the manner
of noise production, constrictive sonorant consonants are divided into lateral
consonants and median.
In the production of median sonorants the air escapes without
audible friction over the central part of the tongue, the sides of the tongue
being raised. English median constrictive sonorants are: [w, r, j ]; Turkish -
[ r, j ].the production of lateral sonorants the tongue is pressed against the
alveolar ridge or the teeth, and the sides of the tongue are lowered, leaving
the air-passage flow along them. English lateral constrictive sonorants are: [
l', l ]; in Turkish - [ l ].
According to the active organ of speech and the place of
obstruction.
a)
According
to the active organ of speech, English consonants are devided into three
groups: labial, lingual and glottal.
1. Labial consonants are articulated with one or both lips
and, therefore, may be (A) bilabial and (B) labio-dental.
(A)Bilabial consonants are articulated with both lips, upper and
lower. The English bilabial consonants are: [m, p, b]; the Turkish bilabial
consonants are: [ m, p, b ].
(B) Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower
lip against the upper teeth. The English labio-dental consonants are [f], [v],
and the Turkish labio-dental consonants are: [f, v].
2. Lingual consonants are articulated with the tongue and may
be (A) forelingual, (B) mediolingual, and (C) backlingual.
(A)Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the
blade of the tongue, they may fall into two subgroups: a) apical and b)
cacuminal.
(a) Apical consonants are
articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the
alveolar ridge. The English apical consonants are: [T], [D], [t], [d], [I],
[n], [s], [z], the Turkish [ t, d, n, l, s, z ].
(b) Cacuminal consonants are
articulated by the tip of the tongue raised against the back part of the
alveolar ridge. The front of the tongue is lowered in a 'spoon-shaped' form;
the English [r].
(B) Mediolingual consonants are articulated with the front of
the tongue against the hard palate. For English and Turkish the mediolingual
consonat is [j].
(C) Backlingual consonants are articulated by the back of the
tongue against the soft palate. The English backlingual consonants are: [k],
[g], [N], and the Turkish - [[k'], [k], [g'], [g].) According to the place of
obstruction, English consonants are divided into (1) dental (interdental or
post-dental), (2) alveolar, (3) palato-alveolar, (4) post-alveolar, (5)
palatal, and (6) velar.
(1)
Dental
consonants are articulated against the upper teeth either with the tip or with
the blade of the tongue. The English [T], [D], or with the blade of the tongue,
the Turkish [t], [t'].
(2) Alveolar consonants are
articulated by the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge: such English
consonants as [t], [d], [n], [ l ], [s], [z], and Turkish - [t, d, s, z, l,n,
r, ts].
(3) Palato-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip and
blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge or the back part of the alveolar
ridge, while the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard
palate: the English [S], [Z], [C], [G], and the Turkish [ Z, S ] .
(4) Post-alveolar consonants
are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the back part of the alveolar
ridge: the English [r].
(5) Palatal consonants are
articulated by the front of the tongue being raised in the direction of the
hard palate: the English, Turkish [j].
(6) Velar consonants are
articulated by the back or root of the tongue raised in the direction of the
velum, or against the uvula; the English [k, g, N], the Turkish [k',k, g', g].
The correspondence between the active organ of speech and the
place of obstruction for the English forelingual consonants see in Table 4.2
given below.
2. Active organ of speech vs. place of obstruction
Active org./ place of obstruction
|
Forelingual
|
Mediolingual
|
Backlingual
|
Dental/Interdental
|
d, t
|
|
|
Alveolar
|
t, d, n, l, s, z
|
|
|
Alveolar-palatal
|
c, g, s, z
|
|
|
Post-alveolar
|
r
|
|
|
Palatal
|
|
j
|
|
Velar
|
|
|
k, g, n
|
According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of
articulation
a)
According
to the work of the vocal cords, consonants are divided into voiced and
voiceless.
b) According to the force of articulation, consonants are
divided into fortis (or relatively strong), and lenis (or relatively
weak).English voiced consonants are lenis (relatively weak). The following
English consonants are voiced and lenis: [b], [d], [g], [g], [v], [d], [z],
[z], [m], [n], [n], [w], [i], [r], [j].Turkish voiceless consonants are weaker
than their English counterparts, and Turkish voiced consonants are a little
stronger.English voiceless consonants are fortis (relatively strong). They are pronounced
with greater muscular tension and a stronger breath force than the voiced ones.
The English voiceless consonants are: [p, t, k, f, T, s, C, S, h].
3.
Voiceless consonant (surd)
|
Voiced equivalent
|
[p] (pin)
|
[b] (bin)
|
[t] (ten)
|
[d] (den)
|
[k] (con)
|
[g] (gone)
|
[tʃ] (chin)
|
[dʒ] (gin)
|
[f] (fan)
|
[v](van)
|
[θ] (thin, thigh)
|
[ð] (then, thy)
|
[s] (sip)
|
[z] (zip)
|
[ʃ] (pressure)
|
[ʒ] (pleasure)
|
to the position of the soft palateto the position of the soft
palate, all English consonants are devided into two groups: nasal and
sonorants.consonants are produced when the soft palate is lowered down and the
air-passage goes through the nasal cavity, and the access to the mouth cavity is
blocked.English nasal consonants are [m], [n], [n], and the Turkish - [m ],
[n].
List of nasal stops:
· [m] is a voiced bilabial nasal
· [ɱ] is a voiced labiodental
nasal (SAMPA: [F])
· [n] is a dental nasal (SAMPA: [n_d]}
· [n] is an alveolar or dental nasal:
see alveolar nasal
· [ɳ] voiced retroflex nasal,
common in Indic languages (SAMPA: [n`])
· [ɲ] voiced palatal nasal
(SAMPA: [J]); is a common sound in European languages as in: Spanish ñ; or French and Italian gn;
or Catalan and Hungarian ny; or Occitan and Portuguese nh.
· [ŋ] voiced velar nasal (SAMPA:
[N]), as in sing.
· [ɴ] voiced uvular nasal (SAMPA:
[N\])
Oral consonants are produced when the soft palate is raised
up and the air passage goes through the mouth cavity, and the access to the
nasal cavity is blocked.following English consonants are oral [p], [b], [t],
[d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [t], [d], [s], [z],
[s], [z], [h], [c], [g], [w], [i], [r], [j].examined the main criteria we can
use to classify consonants from an articulatory point of view, we can now
briefly describe the consonant phonemes of English.. The Approximants
. The Glides. There are two sounds in English, [w] and [j],
having vowel-like features as far as their articulation is concerned, but which
differ from their vowel counterparts [u] and [i] respectively through their
distribution, force of articulation and length. When we articulate a glide the
articulatory organs start by producing a vowel-like sound, but then they
immediately change their position to produce another sound. It is to the
gliding that accompanies their articulation that these sounds owe their name.
As we have seen earlier, precisely because of their ambiguous nature they are
also called semivowels or semiconsonants. Unlike vowels, they cannot occur in syllable-final
position, can never precede a consonant and are always followed by a genuine
vocalic sound.. [w] is a labio-velar, rounded sound. At the beginning, its
articulation is similar to that of the vowel [u], but then the speech organs
shift to a different position to utter a different vocalic sound. The
distribution of the sound includes syllable-initial position before almost any
English vowel (e.g. win [w 4n], weed [wi:d], wet [wet], wag [w æg], work [w f:k], won
[won],woo [wu:], wood [w υd], walk, [w ]:k] wander [w ]nd c],) or a diphthong (e.g.
way). Before [r], (e.g. write) the sound is no longer pronounced. [w] can also
occur after a plosive (e.g. twin, queen) or a fricative consonant (e.g. swine).
It can be rendered graphically either by the letter w (the most common case)
(e.g. sweet) or by u (e.g. quite).. [j] is an unrounded palatal semivowel. The
initial stage of its pronunciation is quite similar to that of the short vowel
[w], but then the sound glides to a different vocalic value. Like [w], [j]
cannot occur in final position (as a quite similar palatal sound very often
does in Turkish), is never followed by a consonant and occurs in front of back,
central and front vowels. (e.g. yes, young, youth). It can be preceded by a
plosive (e.g. tune) or a fricative (e.g. fume). The sound may be spelt y (as in
year) while in words spelt with u, ue, ui, ew, eu and eau read as the long
vowel [u:] the palatal sound is often inserted. The insertion is obligatory if
the preceding consonant is: an oral plosive (p, b, t, d, k, g), a nasal stop
(m, n), a labio-dental fricative (f, v) or a glottal one (h). A word like
beauty can only be read [bju:tw] and not [bu:tw]. Cf. also: pure, bureau,
tulip, deuce, queue, argue, mule, neutral, furious, revue, huge. The palatal
sound is not inserted after affricates or after [r] or [l] preceded by a
consonant: chew, June, rude, clue. When [l] is not preceded by a consonant or
when the sound preceding [u:] is an alveolar fricative [s, z] or a dental one,
the usage varies: cf. suit [sju:t], but also [su:t]. In words like unite,
unique, university, etc, where u forms the syllable alone the vowel is always
preceded by the semivowel: [ju:naıt].
. The Liquids. These are approximant sounds, produced in the
alveolar and postalveolar region and include several variants of the lateral
[l] and of the rhotic [r].. The lateral [l]. The main variants of [l] are a
so-called “clear” [l] and a “dark” [l]. The clear [l] is distributed in
prevocalic positions. When this sound is articulated, the tip of the tongue
touches the alveolar ridge and the air is released either unilaterally or on
both sides of the active articulator. The front part of the tongue also raises
towards the hard palate. Words like lake [leık], look [luk], flute
[flu:t], lurid [ljurıd] delight [dılaıt] illustrate the
distribution of the consonant in syllable-initial position or after a plosive
plot [pl]t], Blake [bleık], clean [kli:n], glue [glu:]
or a fricative slot [sl]t], fly [flaı] and in front of a vowel
or the glide [j] The dark [ł] is distributed in
word-final position or before a consonant. As in the case o the clear [l] the
tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge and the air is released laterally,
but now it is the body of the tongue that raises against the soft palate,
modifying the resonance of the sound and giving it a more “stifled” character.
Words like kill [kił], rule [ru:ł], belfry [bełfrı], belt [bełt], silk [sıłk] illustrate the
distribution of the sound either at the end of the word (syllable) or before a
consonant.phoneme is spelt either l or ll in words like link or call, for
instance. In many words, however, before plosive sounds like [k] or [d] - cf.
chalk, could; or before nasals like [m] or [n] - cf. calm, Lincoln; the
labio-dental fricatives [f] and [v] - cf. calf, calves; the lateral sound is
not pronounced. . The rhotic [r]. The class includes several variants which are
pretty different both in rticulatory terms and in auditory effect. The RP [‹]
is a frictionless continuant, articulated very much like a fricative, but
friction does not accompany the production of the sound. The tip of the tongue
slightly touches the back of the alveolar ridge, while the body of the tongue
is low in the mouth. flapped is used by many speakers of English, especially
when it occurs at the beginning of unstressed syllables. The tongue rapidly
touches the alveolar ridge with a tap.rolled [r] is common in northern dialects
and in Scotland. It is produced by a quick succession of flaps, the tongue
repeatedly and rapidly touching the alveolar ridge and vibrating against it.
This sound is not characteristic for RP. The letter r or double rr reproduces
the sound graphically: right, barren In postvocalic word- or syllable-final
position the sound is not pronounced in standard English - cf. car, party. If
the word is, however, followed by a vowel, [r] is reinserted: the car is mine.
The same insertion takes place when an affix is attached to a base ending in a
(normally) silent [r]: hear [hıc] /hearing [hıcrıõ]; Moor [mυc] /Moorish [mυcrı•]. This type of [r] is
called “linking r”.. The English Stops
. The oral
plosives. In terms of their place of articulation they are bilabial, alveolar
and velar.. [p] is a voiceless, bilabial, fortis plosive. Its variants include
an aspirated plosive if the consonant is followed by a stressed vowel and
occurs in syllable-initial position. Being a bilabial stop, [p] is produced by
completely blocking the airstream at the level of the lips and by suddenly
releasing the air with an explosion. Except for the aspirated variant, the
phoneme is pretty similar to its Turkish counterpart. It is distributed in
initial, medial and final position: pane, appear, lip. It is spelt p: plane or
pp5: opposite and only exceptionally gh in hiccough. The letter p is silent
when followed by another obstruent or a nasal in word-initial position: psalm,
pterodactyl, pneumatic.[b] is the voiced, lenis counterpart of [p]. Voicing and
force of articulation are the features that contrast the two phonemes, [b]
being like [p] a bilabial sound. It is distributed in all three basic
positions; initial, medial and final: bet, above, cab. It is spelt b: about or
bb:abbot. The letter is silent in final position after m: limb, crumb, dumb and
in front of t in words of Latin origin where the sound has long been lost:
debt, doubt, subtle. The variants of [b] include partially devoiced allophones
in initial position: big, blow, bring and laterally or nasally released
allophones when [b] is followed by the lateral l: bless or by a nasal
consonant: ribbon. It is not audibly released in final position: rib.. [t] is a
voiceless, apico-alveolar, fortis plosive. Like [p], it has an aspirated
variant that occurs before stressed vowels when the phoneme is distributed in
syllable-initial position: tube. If preceded by s, however, [t] is unaspirated:
stain. Its distribution includes all basic positions: try, attain, pit. It is
laterally or nasally released if followed by [l] or by a nasal consonant,
repectively: little, written, utmost. The English phoneme is more retracted
than its Turkish counterpart which is rather a dental sound. It is spelt with
t: toe, with tt: cutter or with th: Thomas,Thames. . [d] is the voiced, lenis
counterpart of [t], voicing and force of articulation differentiating between
the two sounds that share the same place of articulation in the alveolar
region. Both [t] and [d] can become dentalized in the vicinity of the dental
fricatives, in words like eighth and breadth. The sound is distributed in
initial, medial and final position: dime, addition, pad. It is partially
devoiced in initial position: duke and devoiced in final position: road. It is
laterally released if followed by [l]: riddle and nasally released if followed
by [m] or [n]: admit, sudden.. It is spelt d: read or dd: adder.. [k] is a
voiceless, dorso-velar, fortis, plosive sound, articulated with the dorsum of
the tongue against the soft palate. Like the other voiceless plosives described
above, it has an aspirated variant if the sound is distributed in
syllable-initial position, in front of a stressed vowel: cat. [k] is
distributed in initial, medial and final position: coat, accuse, sack. It can
be followed by a nasal consonant and be consequently nasally released thicken
or by the lateral liquid and be laterally released: fickle. In spelling, the
sound can be represented by the letter c (e.g. comb) or by cc (e.g. accuse), by
k (e.g. kill), by ck (e.g. pick), by ch (e.g. architect), by qu (e.g. queen).
As in Turkish, the sequence [ks] can be rendered by the letter x (e.g.
extreme). In words like muscle and knave the letters c an k are silent.[g] is
the voiced, lenis pair of [k] and it has basically the same features as its
Turkish counterpart. It is distributed in initial, medial and final position:
game, begin, rag. Its allophones include partially devoiced variants in initial
position: gain, devoiced variants in final position: dog, laterally released,
when followed by [l]: giggle and nasally released when followed by [m]:
dogmatic. In spelling, the consonant can be rendered by g: get by gg: begged,
or by g followed by h, as in ghastly, by ua, ue or ui, as in guarantee, guess
or linguist, respectively. The voiced counterpart of [ks], [gz] can also be
rendered by x in words like example.. The glottal stop [g] is a glottal,
voiceless, fortis sound produced in the glottal region by bringing the vocal
cords together and then separating them, thus completely blocking and then
suddenly releasing the airstream. It is a sound that has been compared with a
slight cough. It appears in syllablefinal position especially when it separates
two adjacent vowels that are not part of the same syllable (in a hiatus):
geography or between a vowel and a syllable-final voiceless stop or affricate
that it reinforces. In some accents (notably Cockney), it replaces voiceless
plosives like [k] and [t] at the end of a syllable. E.g. sick guy [sI?gaI] or
quite right [kwaI?raIt]. Acoustically, English voiced plosives can be
distinguished from their voiceless counterparts by having a low frequency
component determined by the feature voice. The release stages of the three
classses of stops in terms of place of articulation: bilabial, alveolar and
velar, respectively, differ as regards the noise burst they produce. Alveolar
plosives display higher frequencies (3000-4000 cps) than the bilabial (around
360 cps) and velar ones (around 700 cps).
. The Nasal
stops.. [m] is a bilabial, voiced, lenis, nasal stop. As in the case of all
nasal sonorants, when we articulate this sound the velum is lowered, blocking
the oral cavity and letting the air escape through the nose. There are no
differences between the English sound and its Turkish counterpart. [m] is
distributed in all basic positions: initial, medial and final: make, remote,
dim. It can be spelt with m or mm: come, common. It should be said, however,
that English does not accept a sequence of two nasal sounds in the same
syllable, words like solemn and hymn differing from their Turkish counterparts
as the last nasal sound is not pronounced. If an affix is added, nevertheless,
that begins with a vowel, the second consonant is recovered. Compare solemn
[s]lem] to solemnity [s]lemnwtw].. [n] is an alveolar, voiced, lenis, nasal
stop. The place of articulation is similar to that of [t] and [d], but [n] is a
nasal sound, so the air is released through the nose and not through the mouth.
It is similar to its Turkish counterpart. It is distributed in all three basic
positions - initial, medial and final: name, renown, can. It is spelt n or nn:
dean, annual. The sound is elided in final position after [m], but recovered in
derived words: damn, damnation. (See also solemn and solemnity above).. [õ] is a velar, voiced, lenis, nasal stop. It
occurs in the vicinity of the velar oral plosives in words like link or wrong.
It is to be noted that in present day English the velar oral plosive in the
last word is no longer pronounced, but we can find the velar nasal in front of
[g] in connected speech in sequences like I can get it. A similar sound can be
found in Turkish, in words like bancă, rangă, but in our language it does not have a phonemic,
contrastive value. As pointed out above, this phoneme has a limited
distribution: it always precedes the voiceless velar plosive or occurs in
syllable-final position in front of an elided [g].. The English Fricativesare,
as we remember, sounds that are produced by narrowing the speech tract and
letting the air out, a process which is accompanied by friction and in some
cases by a hissing sound.
[f] is a
labio-dental, voiceless, fortis consonant. It is produced by pressing the lower
lip against the upper teeth and forcing the air out between them. The sound is
similar to its Turkish counterpart.The sound can be spelt f - as in fine,
fllare, fringe, feud, loaf, stifle, ff - as in effort, snuff, ph - as in
physics, graph, or even gh - as in enough, tough. The word lieutenant
[lef’tencnt] is a particular case.
[v] is the voiced,
lenis pair of [f] with which it shares the place (labio- dental) and manner
(fricative) of articulation. It is important to remember that the English sound
is a labio-dental and not a bilabial fricative (as its Spanish counterpart, for
instance). It has exactly the same characteristics as the Turkish sound. It is
spelt with the letter v. (Exceptionally, by ph in, nephew and f in of). Certain
English nouns voice their labio-dental final fricative when they pluralize
displaying the alternance f/v: e.g. leaf / leaves, wife/wives. Derivational
affixes can also voice the final consonant: life/liven.
[θ] is an interdental, voiceless, fortis fricative. The
phoneme does not have any distributional variants. It occurs in word-initial,
medial and final position. It is produced with the tip of the tongue between
the teeth, the air escaping through the passage in between. It is a sound
difficult to pronounce for Turkish speakers who often mistake it for [s] or
even [t]. The sound exists in other European languages too, such as Spanish or
Greek, the symbol used in the IPA alphabet being in fact borrowed from the
Greek alphabet. The sound is rendered graphically by h: e.g. thin, method,
path. The sound often occurs in clusters difficult to pronounce: eighths [eıtθs],
depths [depθs], lengths [leõθs].
[∂] is the
voiced pair of [θ] being an interdental, voiced, lenis
fricative. In initial position it is only distributed in grammatical words such
as demonstratives: this, that, these, those, there; articles: the; adverbs:
thus. It occurs freely in medial position: brother, bother, rather, heathen. In
final position it often represents the voicing of [θ] in plurals like mouths [mau.z], wreaths [ri:.z]
which may prove difficult to pronounce, or in derived words like bath [ba: θ] (noun)/bathe [beı.] (verb) or breath [breθ] (n.)/ breathe [bri:.] (v.). The sound is always
spelt th, like its voiceless counterpart. [s] is an alveolar, voiceless, fortis
fricative, produced with the blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, a
sound quite similar to its Turkish counterpart. It is a hissing sound
distributed in all major positions: at the beginning, within and at the end of
a word. It is in fact the only obstruent sound in English that can occur in
front of another obstruent, provided the latter is voiceless: e.g. spot, stop,
skin. [s] is the plural allomorph for nouns ending in a voiceless consonant as
well as the allomorph of the 3rd person singular present indicative morpheme.
It is spelt s, ss or c in front of e, i or y: e.g. sour, say, hiss, assign,
ceiling, cellar, cigarette, precise, cypress, bicycle. Sometimes the spelling
can be sce, sci or scy (e.g. science, scent, scene, scythe). s is silent in
words like corps, island, viscount.
[z] is the voiced,
lenis, alveolar fricative that corresponds to the voiceless [s]. It is quite
similar to its Turkish counterpart, but it plays a more important role in
English as it is one of the main allomorphs of the plural morpheme (distributed
after a voiced consonant or a vowel). Like its voiceless counterpart, [z] is a
hissing sound, produced with a high-pitched friction.when these sounds are
articulated the air is expelled through a narrow groove along the middle of the
blade they are also called grooved fricatives. Together with the more
retracted, alveo-palatal fricatives and with the affricate sounds they are
called sibilants. The sound is spelt [z] It is often spelt s when the sound
does not occur in initial positon e.g. nose, easy, desire), and, exceptionally,
tz in tzar. Similarly, when it marks the plural of nouns ending in a voiced
sound (e.g. boys, balls, ribs) or when it is the voiced allomorph of the 3rd
person singular present indicative of verbs ending in a voiced sound (e.g.
plays, calls, adds) the spelling is s. Exceptionally, the sound can be spelt
double ss in words like dissolve, possess. [∫]
is an alveopalatal, voiceless, fortis fricative consonant. The uttering f this
sound should not raise any particular problems for Turkishs as its articulatory
features are similar to those of its counterpart in Turkish. The blade of the
tongue is raised against the region behind the alveolar ridge and the air is
forced out through a groove a little wider than in the case of [s], its more
fronted counterpart. [•] is distributed in all three main positions in the
word. It is often spelt sh in words like shoe, cushion or push. It can also be
spelt s (e.g. sure, sugar) or ss (e.g. pressure, mission) or ci (ancient,
delicious), sci (conscious) ce (ocean), si (pension, mansion), ti (tuition,
retribution). It is a variant of [sj] in words like issue, tissue. In words
oforigin the sound is spelt ch: champagne, charade, charge, moustache, attache.
The same spelling is used in proper names like Charlotte, Chicago, Chicoutimi,
Michigan.
[dʒ] is the voiced counterpart of [tʃ]. It is an alveopalatal, voiced, lenis
fricativeand is pronounced very much like the corresponding sound in Turkish.
It is not, however, a very common sound in English as it occurs mainly in loan
(particularly French) words. It is never distributed in initial position, but
it can occur in medial (pleasure, treasure, measure) or final position (garage,
prestige). It can be spelt either s when followed by u (visual) or i
(decision), or z if followed by u (seizure) or ge (massage, espionage). In
words like casual the alternative pronunciation [zj] is possible, while in
other cases the fricative is replaced by the affricate [d] (e.g. garage).
[h] is a glottal
fricative in English, a voiceless, fortis sound produced by letting the air
pass freely through the mouth during expiration. Thus, its place of
articulation in the glottal region is more retracted than in the case of the
Turkish sound which is rather a velar sound, closer to the variant occurring in
Scottish English: loch [lox]. A palatalized version is used when the sound is
followed by a palatal: humane [hjumeın]. Unlike in most Romance languages h
freely occurs in initial position in English: home, hiss, hut“ Dropping the h’s
“ is even considered a sign of lack of education. In a small number of words
the sound is, however, dropped even in standard English in both in initial and
medial position: hour, heir, honour, honest, vehicle, annihilate. It is also
common (even for educated people to drop the initial h in unstressed (weak)
forms of the personal pronouns (he, him) possessives (his, her) or the verb
have h is also silent in final position in the interjection ah or in words like
shah. The conservative spelling of English has preserved the letter h after r
in words of Greek origin where no h sound or aspiration is heard nowadays
(rhapsody, rhetoric, rheumatism, rhinal, rhinoceros, rhombus, rhyme, rhythm)..
The English Affricatesaffricate phonemes of English are [tʃ•] and [dʒ]. They differ from their Turkish
counterparts as they can be distributed in all three basic positions (including
the word-final one) and can be followed by any vowel. Therefore, they are far
less palatalized than the corresponding Turkish sounds that must be followed by
either e or i. Even when they are followed by i and e the English affricates
differ considerably from the corresponding sounds in Turkish. In order to
realize the difference between the English sounds and their Turkish
counterparts it is enough to compare the English word chin to the Turkish cin
or the English gem to the Turkish gem.
[tʃ] is a voiceless, fortis, alveo-palatal
sound produced with the blade of the tongue raised against the region just
behind the alveolar ridge. As in the case of any affricate sound, its articulation
starts like that of a plosive - in our case [t] - by completely blocking the
outgoing airstream and then continues by a gradual release of the air, as for a
fricative [•]. The very symbol used in thealphabet for the notation of the
sound suggests the mixed nature of the affricate. We should make a difference,
however, between the affricate proper (pitch [pıt•] and the sequence of the plosive and the
fricative [t] + [•] (courtship [k]:t•ıp], right shoe [raıt•u:]). The phoneme is represented graphically
by ch: (charm, chinchilla, rich) or tch (kitchen, bitch) or by t followed by u
(creature, culture) when the plosive is palatalized. In words like habitual,
sanctuary the pronunciation with an affricate is a variant of [tʃ]. Exceptionally, we can have ce or cz as
graphic representations of the sound in (violon) cello or Czech.
[dʒ] is the voiced counterpart of [tʃ], being an alveo-palatal, voiced, lenis,
affricate consonant. It can be rendered graphically by j in either initial or
medial position in words like justice, John, rejoice, pyjamas, by ge in all
basic positions: gesture, agent, sage, by gi in initial and medial position:
giraffe, rigid; and gy in initial position: gymnastics. In certain words it can
be spelt d followed by u: gradual, individual, procedure/al. In all these
cases, however, there is an alternative pronunciation [dʒ]. In a number of proper names or common
nouns originating in proper names ch is read [dʒ]: Norwich, Greenwich, S/sandwich. Another
spelling can be dg in words like ridge or edge.
.2 Classification
of Turkish consonant system
, the westernmost
of the Turkic languages, belongs to the Turkic branch of the Altaic language
family. It is the largest of the Turkic languages in terms of number of
speakers. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and
other Oghuz languages such as Azerbaijani, Turkmen, and Qashqai. Turkey
occupies a central geographical meeting point between Asia and Europe.
Anatolia, the western region of Asian Turkey, is one of the oldest inhabited
areas of the world. It is thought that the first human inhabitants appeared in
Anatolia as far back as 7,500 BC. The Ottoman Empire, established by the Oghuz
Turks of western Anatolia and ruled by the Osmanli dynasty, ruled the areas
surrounding the Mediterranean Sea from 1281 to 1922. It was defeated by the
Allies during World War I, and its territories were colonized by the victors.
After the Turkish War of Independence (1918-1923), the Republic of Turkey was
founded from the remnants of the fallen empire by Mustafa Kemal, who was later
given the name of Atatürk 'Father of the Turks'. He was responsible for a
wide range of reforms that helped to modernize Turkey, including far-reaching
language reforms that concentrated on replacing the Arabic script with the
Roman one, and purging the language of Arabic and Persian words. Turkish is
the official language of Turkey, where it is spoken by 46.3 million people. It
is also the official language of Cyprus along with Greek. The rest of the Turkish
speakers live in 35 different countries in Europe, the Middle East, Central
Asia, and the Americas (Ethnologue). Most of these countries were part of the
territory governed by the Ottoman Empire. The worldwide population of speakers
of Turkish is estimated at around 51 million (Ethnologue). Language and
language reform are hot political issues in Turkey with an ongoing battle
between supporters of a traditional lexicon and those who support a modern,
turkified one with a large number of borrowings from western European
languages. Religious publications have not been as deeply affected by language
reform as secular literature. They continue to use a form of Turkish that
relies on Arabic and Persian vocabulary and syntax. The resurgence of Islam in
the 1990s has led to the reintroduction of many Islamic words into modern
spoken Turkish. Modern standard Turkish is based on the Istanbul dialect.
Turkish has 20 consonant phonemes. There are no consonant clusters at the
beginning of words. Stops, fricatives, and affricates are devoiced in final
position, e.g., kitap 'book' (in the nominative case), kitab'book' (in the accusative case).can divide Turkish
consonants into two categories:
. Voiceless
consonants: ç, f, h, k, p, s, ю, t
. Voiced
consonants: all the othersvariable consonants are: t/d, p/b, ç/c.change 1: concerns the initial consonant
of newly added suffixes beginning in t/d or ç/c:of word is voiceless => t or çof word is a vowel => d or cof word is
voiced => d or c: üt (milk) + çü/cü => sütçü (milkman); the suffix begins in ç because süt has a voiceless end consonant.(coffee) + çi/ci => kahveci (coffee house keeper);
the suffix begins in c because kahve ends by a vowel.(house) + te/de => evde
(in the house); the suffix begins in d because ev has a voiced end
consonant.change 2: final consonant of preceding word (or suffix) changes when
a new suffix is added:immediately followed by a suffixed vowel, ç->c; t->d; p->bimmediately
followed by a suffixed consonant, c->ç; d->t; b->p:рaç (tree) ends with a з. If
we add the -ta suffix we'll get aрaçta (in the tree). If we add the -э
suffix we'll get aрacэ.
Table 3. Consonant phonemes of Standard Turkish
|
Bilabial
|
Labiodental
|
Dental
|
Alveolar
|
Postalveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
Plosives
|
p
|
b
|
|
t
|
d
|
|
|
c
|
j
|
k
|
ɡ
|
|
Nasals
|
m
|
|
n
|
|
|
|
|
|
Fricatives
|
|
f
|
v
|
s
|
z
|
|
ʃ
|
ʒ
|
|
|
ɣ
|
h
|
|
Affricates
|
|
|
|
ʧ
|
ʤ
|
|
|
|
|
Tap
|
|
|
|
r
|
|
|
|
|
Approximant
|
|
|
|
|
|
j
|
|
|
Lateral approximants
|
|
|
l
|
|
l
|
|
|
|
|
|
sh in shop
|
|
|
|
s in measure
|
|
|
ç
|
sh in sheen
|
|
|
c - j
|
no equivalents in English
|
|
|
|
no equivalent in English
|
|
|
t
|
ch in cheap
|
|
|
d
|
j in jeep
|
|
|
l
|
l in bull
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
G - g - Always a hard 'g' as in 'got'. Never soft.
Ğ - ğ - Not exactly a
consonant, it rather distinguishes properties of the vowel it follows. When
following a member of the 'dark' vowels (a, o, u, ı) it lengthens the vowel,
causing it to be held for two beats instead of one. This is not the same as
stress, but rather like the difference between 'saw off' and 'soft': the former
'aw' sound is held for twice the time of the latter. When following a member of
the 'light' vowels (e, i, ö, ü) it becomes a gliding 'i'
sound. The
phoneme / ɣ / usually referred to as yumuşak g ("soft g"), ğ in Turkish orthography,
actually represents a rather weak front-velar or palatal approximant between
front vowels. It never occurs at the beginning of a word, but always follows a
vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens the preceding
vowel.[21]sounds [c], [ɟ] and [l] are in
complementary distribution with [k], [g] and [ɫ], the former occurring with
front vowels and the latter with back vowels. These allophones are not
distinguished in the orthography, in which both series are written <k>,
<g> and <l>. When a vowel is added to nouns ending with postvocalic
<k>, the <k> becomes <ğ> by consonant
alternation.
Turkish orthography is highly phonetic and a word's
pronunciation is always completely identified by its spelling. The following
table presents the Turkish letters, the sounds they correspond to in
International Phonetic Alphabet and how these can be approximated more or less
by an English speaker.earliest known Turkish alphabet is the Orkhon script. In
general, Turkic languages have been written in a number of different alphabets
including Cyrillic, Arabic, Greek, Armenian, Latin and some other Asiatic
writing systems.current 29-letter Turkish alphabet, used for the Turkish
language, was established by the Law on the Adoption and Implementation of the
Turkish Alphabet, numbered 1353,[1] in Turkey on November 1, 1928,
as a vital step in the cultural part of Atatürk's Reforms.[2]
Replacing the earlier Ottoman Turkish script, the script was created as an
extended version of the Latin alphabet at the initiative of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
Table 4.
Letter
|
IPA
|
English approximation
|
Letter
|
IPA
|
English approximation
|
B
|
b
|
b
|
As b in bat
|
M
|
m
|
m
|
As m in man
|
C
|
c
|
dʒ
|
As j in job
|
N
|
n
|
n
|
As n in not
|
Ç
|
ç
|
tʃ
|
As ch in chat
|
P
|
p
|
p
|
As p in put
|
D
|
d
|
d
|
As d in dog
|
R
|
r
|
<file:///C:\wiki\Alveolar_tap>As r in rat
|
|
F
|
f
|
f
|
As f in far
|
S
|
s
|
s
|
As s in sand
|
G
|
g
|
g
|
As g in gap
|
Ş
|
ş
|
<file:///C:\wiki\Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative>As sh in she
|
|
Ğ
|
ğ
|
:
|
Soft, lengthens preceding vowel
|
T
|
t
|
t
|
As t in top
|
H
|
h
|
h
|
As h in hot
|
V
|
v
|
v
|
As v in valve
|
J
|
j
|
ʒ
|
As g in montage
|
Z
|
z
|
z
|
As z in zip
|
K
|
k
|
k
|
As c in cat
|
|
|
|
|
L
|
l
|
l
|
As l in let
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Distinctive
features
Note that dotted and dotless I are separate letters, each
with its own uppercase and lowercase form. I is the capital form of ı, and İ is the capital form of i.
(In the original law establishing the alphabet, the dotted İ came before the undotted I;
now their places are reversed [Yazım Kılavuzu].) The letter J,
however, uses a tittle in the same way English does, with a dotted lowercase
version, and a dotless uppercase version.Optional circumflex accents can be
used with "â", "î" and "û" to disambiguate words
with different meanings but otherwise the same spelling, or to indicate palatalization
of a preceding consonant (for example, while "kar" /kar/ means
"snow", "kâr" /car/ means
"profit"), or long vowels in loanwords, particularly from Arabic.
These are seen as variants of "a", "i", and "u"
and are becoming quite rare in modern usage.
Status of Q, W, X
The Turkish alphabet has no Q, W or X. Instead, these are
transliterated into Turkish as K, V, and KS, respectively. The 1928 Law 1353
enforced usage of only the Turkish letters on official documents like birth
certificates, marriage documents, and land registers;[1] the 1982
Constitution explicitly retains this law.[5] In practice, the
requirement of using the Turkish alphabet in state registers has made it
impossible to register some Kurdish names exactly as they are rendered in
Kurdish orthography, which includes q, w, and x. The families can give their
children Kurdish names, but these names cannot include these letters and are
required to use the aforementioned transliterations. Many Kurds have applied to
the courts seeking to change their names to specifically include the letters q,
w, and x.[6] A similar situation exists in Europe where many people
with Turkish names reside.[7] Many Turkish names include ğ, ü, ş, ı, ö, ç, and İ, some of which are
unavailable in local official alphabets, depending on the country of residence.
In Turkish the spelling of the words is changed when the
pronunciation changes. Generally this does not happen in English, when we
change the pronunciation we do not change the spelling. In fact we often
change the spelling when the pronunciation is the same so that we can recognize
the meaning. Several more phenomena need to be understood from the beginning.
They are complications, but are almost always regular. One is voicing
assimilation: the voiced stop d in a suffix becomes voiceless t immediately after
a voiceless consonant p t k ç f s ş h. So kitap book gives
kitapta in the book and kitaptır it is a book, and çocuk child gives çocuktan from the child,
and genç young gives gençtir s/he is young. second
is related to this. As with many languages, you can't get voiced stops b d g c
at the end of a word: they become voiceless p t k ç (kitap is from Arabic kitâb). But when a vowel
suffix is added, they change to the voiced forms. So with the genitive case
ending, we get kitabın of the book and gencin of the young
one. With k the change is not to its ordinary voiced equivalent g but the soft
(and now silent) ğ, as in çocuğun of the child. , Turkish
does not like two vowels to come together, so when a vowel-initial suffix is
attached to a vowel-final word, a consonant is interposed. Which one depends on
the ending: the genitive in ~ ın ~ ün ~ un takes -n-, as in
kuyunun of the well, kedinin of the cat. The dative e ~ a and the accusative i
~ ı ~ ü ~ u take -y-, as in
kediye to the cat. The third person possessive is the same as the accusative
after a consonant, but has the interposed consonant -s- after a vowel: yolu gördüm I saw the village, yolu
her/his/its village, but kuyuyu gördüm I saw the well, kuyusu
her/his/its well. other suffixes the form after a vowel is shorter than that
after a consonant: such as the possessive, -m in kuyum my well and with an
extra vowel in çocuğum my child.
A number of words can easily show
this-meet vs meat, feet vs feat, right vs write, main vs mane, sea vs see, and
many more.example, if English were written phonetically, the word does should
be spelt duz. Turkish however being a phonetically written language will make
these changes in spelling.
If the word ends in an hard consonant ( ç f h k p s ş t ) then the following
rules apply: k < ğ t < d ç < c p < b f <
v. Adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to a word changes the last letter of
the word itself to its soft version as above Adding a suffix beginning with a
consonant changes the suffix itself to its hard version. -de < -te -den <
-ten and Past Tense -di < -ti
The reason for the changes in
pronunciation are only for ease of speaking and are only concerned with
consonants which have voiced or "hard" and unvoiced or
"soft" equivalents. The word for letter is mektup, but my letter is
mektubum, the terminal -p has changed to -b - see equivalent chart below. This
is simply because it is easier to pronounce and in Turkish the spelling must
reflect this change for the rules of phonetics to operate. and Soft Letter
Equivalents
p equivalent to bf equivalent to v
с equivalent to сs no equivalent -equivalent to ds no equivalent -
к equivalent to gh no equivalent -last three - s, 5, h - do
not have a unvoiced form, as they are not voiced consonants, but they do affect
the added suffix as they are considered as hard consonants:- delicious -
becomes - nefistir - it is (certainly) delicious - not nefisdir. sabah -
morning - becomes - sabahtan - from morning - not sabahdan gunes - sun - becomes
- gunesten - from the sun - not gunesden.-k terminates a word it nearly always
changes to soft -g when suffixes beginning in a vowel are affixed to that word.
The exceptions where no change is made are very few and will not be discussed
here.ending in -K change to -G- when a vowel is addedConsonant Mutation
Examples
kopek - dog kopegim - my dog- leg
bacagin - your leg- ankle topugu - his ankle- wrist bilegimiz - our wristsözluk - spectacles gözlugunuz - your spectacles
durak - bus stopduraga - to the bus
stop- will seegorecegim -1 shall see
yaptik - we did yaptigimiz - that
which we did- glass (tumbler)bardagi - his glassconsonant change from -k to
soft -g- when adding suffixes is the most widespread mainly because so many
Turkish words end in a terminal -kthe word ends in -nk. Then the terminal -k
changes directly to a hard -g as it is totally impossible to utter the letter
cluster -ng plus an added vowel. Examples where terminal -nk changes to -ng
when adding a vowel
denk - bale, equation becomesdengim -
my bale
ahenk - harmony, accordbecomesahengi
- its harmony
kepenk - shutterbecomeskepenginiz -
your shutter
renk - color becomesrengimiz - our
colourof the other consonants which change to their soft form in similar
fashion are as follows:
-p changes to -b in front of suffixed
vowels
c changes to -c in front of suffixed
vowels
t changes to -d in front of suffixed
vowelsExamples of Consonant Change Further Consonant Mutation Examples- book
kitabin - your book- advice ogudiim - my advice
tat - tastetadi - its taste
ilac-medicine ilaci - his medicine-
tree agacin - the tree'sgeneral rule is that single syllable words do not
soften their final hard consonants in line with the general rule, hence:Hard
Roots - Single Syllable Words
ак - whiteaki - the white/his white- horseati - the horse/his
horse- additioneki - the addition/its addition- meateti - the meat/his, her,
its meat- migrationgocu - the migration- ropeipi - rope
kac? - how many? kacinci? - which
one?
kok - rootkokii - the root/its root-
arrowoku - the arrow/his arrow- grassotu - the grass/its grass- hairsagi - the
hair/his, her hair- handlesapi - the handle/its handle- faultsucu - the
fault/his,her, its fault- milksutij - the milk/his, her its milk- threeiicu -
the three/trioof course there are some exceptions to this rule where a single
syllable word does take on its soft form when adding a vowel suffix:Soft Roots
- Single Syllable Words
but - thigh budu - the
thigh/his,her,its thigh- bottom/base dibi - the bottom/the base/its bottom
сок - a tot/much/very cogu - the lot/his, her, its lot
gok - skygogii - the sky/its sky
кар - vessel kabi - the vessel/his vessel
kurt - worm/wolfkurdu - the worm, the
wolf/his wolf
uc - point/tip/enducu - the
point/his, her, its point
yurt - tent yurdu - the tent, the
villageNotes about Consonants in Turkishcan not end with the soft consonants -
b, c, d, gmust end in the equivalent hard forms p, c, t, к in order to finish the pronunciation
without continuity thus helping the listener to determine word breaks in
conversation.has changed the English import of the word - Pub (public house)
into a Turkish version of the word - Pup - which ends in the eqivalent hard
consonant-p. So -Sahil Pup - has been written for- Sahil Pub (Beach
Pub).example - kebab - is wrong - kebap- is correct- (Although the original
form of the word - kebap-is kebab - in Arabic.)the name - Mehmed - is wrong -
Mehmet - is correct. there are a few words which do end in soft consonants such
as - ad, od, sac - simply to make their meaning recognizable from similar word
that have a hard consonant at the end. This little group of words is an
exception to the general rule that words always end in a Hard Consonant.:(isim)
- first name (noun) and at (binek hayvam) - horse (riding animal)(ate§) - fire and
ot (bitki) - grass (plant)(yassi demir) - sheet iron and sac (kil) - hair
(bristle)
Among Turkish consonants, the so-called soft G (ğ) and R cause the greatest
difficulty in utterance. The soft G has been the centre of debates among
linguists as to whether it can be counted as a separate letter. For example,
Lewis comments on the Turkish orthography stating that ğ has no sound at all
between certain vowels or may have the sound of 'y' between certain vowels, and
after some vowels before a following consonant., it would be wrong to say that ğ has no sound at all
between certain vowels, as this letter has a specific function each time it is
used. Lewis states that ğ is a concession to the
traditional spelling of Turkish in the Arabo-Persian alphabet, G and GH. Medial
or final GH becomes ğ.... This ğ whether in borrowings or
in native words, though audible as a 'Northumbrian burr' of varying intensity
in dialect, serves in standard Turkish to lengthen the preceding vowel, a
following vowel being swallowed up.goes on to say that between O and A, or O
and U, it may be heard as a weak 'v' or 'w' and adds that ğ in conjunction with front
vowels is heard as a weak 'y'. While all these statements do have a grain of
truth in them, the letter ğ does more than serve to
lengthen the preceding vowel. The following list of examples of words with ğ aims to clarify the
function of ğ in each case:
5
Word without ğ
|
Word with ğ
|
How g% changes sound of word
|
arı /arə/ (bee)
|
ağrı (pain)
|
/a:hrhə/ - A lengthened, R
aspirated, while upper and lower lip move toward one another.
|
erik /erɩk/ (plum)
|
eğri (crooked, bent)
|
/ejrɩ/ ğ heard like weak Y.
|
|
eğe (file - kind of tool)
|
First E aspirated, thus /ehe/.
|
ılıman /ələman/ (mild)
|
ığrıp (kind of fishing net)
|
/ə:rəp/: first ı is more voiced followed
by ğ.
|
il /ιl/ (city)
|
iğne (needle)
|
/i:hne/ - i is lengthened and
aspirated.
|
|
oğlak (ram)
|
/o:lak/ - O lengthened as lower lip
moves forward.
|
oğul (son)
|
/o:hʋl/ - O lengthened and
aspirated as lower lip moves forward.
|
öksüz /œksyz/(orphan)
|
öğretmen (teacher)
|
/œ:retmen/ Ö lengthened and R after ğ more voiced.
|
un /ʋn/ (flour)
|
uğultu (humming noise)
|
/u:uhltʋ/ - second U lengthened
and a kind of following aspiration.
|
|
uğraş (a struggle)
|
/u:hraʃ/ - U lengthened, lips
rounded.
|
ün /yn/ (fame)
|
züğürt (spendthrift)
|
/zyyhrt/ second Ü with following
aspiration.
|
but not least, the consonant R can also cause problems for
learners of Turkish. In initial position the letter R has the sound /r/, in
medial position it produces a rolling sound. When R is in final position,
foreign learners hear it as /ʃ/. It is, however, not a /ʃ/ sound but an R that
produces a heavy aspiration or even a whisper - more like a fricative or even a
'laryngeal'.
1.3 Summary
All sounds are devided into three major categories: vowels,
consonants and glides. A consonant is a speech sound while pronouncing which
the organs of speech form a restricted obstruction or no obstruction to the
airflow.consonants are articulated with greater constriction, usually creating
more accoustic noise han vowels.the English language there are 24 consonants and
they are classified according to 4 principles.
I. According to the type of obstruction and the manner of
noise production.
II. According to the active organ of speech and the place of
obstruction.
III. According to the work of the vocal cords and the force
of articulation.
IV. According to the position of the soft palate.
They are usually classified by the manner of articulation,
place of articulation and voicing.may be voiced and voiceless, and oral or
nasal. They are produced at various places of articulation: labial, dental,
alveolar, alvelarpalatal, palatal, velar, and glottal. At the place of
articulation, the airstream is modified by different manners of articulation
and the resulting sounds are plosives, fricatives, median, lateral or
affricates.has 20 consonant phonemes. There are no consonant clusters at the
beginning of words. Stops, fricatives, and affricates are devoiced in final
position, e.g., kitap 'book' (in the nominative case), kitab'book' (in the accusative case).may
be voiced and voiceless, and oral or nasal. They are produced at various places
of articulation: labial, labiodental, alveolar, postalveolar, palatal, velar,
and glottal. At the place of articulation, the airstream is modified by
different manners of articulation and the resulting sounds are fricatives, tap,
lateral approximant, semivowel or affricates.
english turkish consonant language
Chapter 2. General similarities and
differences of the consonant sounds in English and Turkish
are made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the
mouth or nasal cavities. That is why in the production of consonant sounds
there is a certain degree of noise.
Consonants are the bones of a word
and give it its basic shape. English accents differ mainly in vowels, the
consonants are more or less the same wherever English is spoken. So if your
vowels axe not perfect you may still be understood by the listener, but. If the
consonants are imperfect there may be some misunderstanding.sentence "W-l
y- -nv-t- m-t- th- p-t-?" "Will you invite me to the party?" is
easy for understanding even if all the vowel letters would be left out. But if
we leave all the consonant letters out ; "-i -ou i--i-e -e -o --e -a--y"
it is impossible to make any sense out of it. Thus we see that there are good
reasons for beginning the course of pronunciation with consonants.would like to
find similarities and differences between English and Turkish consonant
systems.
) First we would like to examine some
similarities between English and Turkish consonant sounds.
[b] is a lenis bilabial stop in English. It is fully voiced
in positions between voiced sounds, as in labour, symbol, rub out, while in
initial and final positions it is partially or completely devoiced, as in big,
blow, rib, ebb. Note mute <b> in limb, thumb, comb, etc.,-and debt,
subtle, doubt.
[b] is a plosive labial stop in
Turkish. It is fully voiced in positions between voiced sounds, as in baba
father, beraber together, while in initial and final positions it is partially
or completely devoiced, as in bin a thousand, bir the number one. There is no
mute <b> in Turkish.
Stops are bilabial [p, b], produced
with both lips pressed together; forelingual, apical alveolar [t, d], produced
with the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge; backlingual, velar [k, g]
produced with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate.
[p, t, k] are strong or fortis as
they are pronounced with more muscular energy and a stronger breath effort than
[b, d, g] which are weak or lenis.
[b, d, g] may be fully voiced in word
initial position before a vowel as in bag, dog, got, gelmek to come, bati west
and durak bus stop or in intervocalic positions as in rubber, leader, eager. In
these cases the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate.word final position
they are partly devoiced: [b. d, g] as in rob [rob], bed [bed], log. [p, t, k]
are voiceless as the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate.
[p, b] occur in word initial, word medial
and word final positions, [p] spelt "p" as in pin, pane, capable,
lip, para money, kapi door, [b] spelt "b, bb" as in big, rubber, sob,
tabii naturally, baş head.
[p, b] are occlusive, plosive,
bilabial; [p] is strong and voiceless, [b] is weak and voiced, in final
position it is partly devoiced.. 1. The lips are firmly kept together.
2.The soft palate is raised and the
air coming into the mouth stops for some time and then breaks the obstruction
with a slight explosion.
3.
The
vocal cords do not vibrate when [p] is produced. For [b] they are tense kept
together and vibrate when [b] occurs before vowels or in intervocalic
positions, eg begin, rubber, bayan a lady.
4.
The
breath effort is very strong for [p], for [b] it is weak.
Recommendation. Press your lips
together and push the air through the mouth breaking the obstruction made by
the lips.
[tʃ] <ch tch t> is a
fortis, voiceless, palato-alveolar affricate in English., as in cheese, watch,
nature, righteous, question.
[č] is a fortis, voiceless, alveolar
fricative in Turkish, as in çabuk quick, fast.
[d] is a lenis apical stop in
English. It is fully voiced between voiced sounds, as in leader, London,
endways, while in initial and final positions it is partially or completely
devoiced, as in do, dry, bid, rubbed. It is most often alveolar, but may be dental
before a dental fricative, as in width.
[d] is a plosive alveolar stop. It is also fully voiced
between voiced sounds in Turkish like in English as in kedi cat, ada island,
merhaba hello. While in initial and final positions it is partially or completely
devoiced, as in od fire.
[f] is <f ff ph gh> is a
fortis, voiceless, labio-dental fricative, as in fork, off, physics, enough.
[f] is a fortis, voiceless, labial
fricative as in faiz interest (resulting from finance), fakat but, fuzla too
much, etc. It sounds same as in English.
[f, v] are constrictive fricative,
labio-dental; [f] is strong and voiceless; [v] is weak and voiced, in the final
position it is partly devoiced. [f, v] are labio-dental, produced with the
lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth;. 1. The lower lip is very close
to the edge of the upper front teeth, thus forming an incomplete obstruction.
When the air goes through the narrowing it causes slight friction.
. For [f] the vocal cords do not
vibrate; there may be some vibration accompanying [v] when it occurs in word
initial positions as in vast or between vowels as in never, cover, over.
. For [f] the air force is very
strong.
Recommendation
. Put the lower lip close to the edge
of the upper front teeth and blow breath between them. For [f] the friction
should be strong but not very noisy; for [v] it should be weak.
. Keep the upper lip out of the way.
[k] <k с сk cc qu [kw] ch> is a
fortis, voiceless, dorsal stop, as in kind, cake, clock, accord, conquer,
stomach, chemist. The graphs <c cc> represent [k] before <a о u>. [k] is aspirated when
syllable-initial, as in come, incur, according, cry, quick, and non-aspirated
after /s/, as in skin.
[k] is a velar, voiceless, plosive stop as in kağıt paper, playing card,
kalabalık crowd, crowded, ыkarar decision. [k] is aspirated at the beginning
of the word as in kardeş brother, sister, family
member.
[l] <l ll> is an alveolar lateral sonorant, as in let,
light, yellow, fill, apple.
[l] is an alveolar lateral sonorant, as in lazim necessary,
lisan language. The pronunciation is the same as in English.
[1] occurs in all word positions,
spelt "1, 11", eq like, glad, tall, lisan language.
[1] is constrictive, lateral,
forelingual, apical, alveolar.. 1. The tip of the tongue is in firm contact
with the alveolar ridge.
. The soft palate is raised and the
air goes freely to the mouth.
3. The sides of the tongue are
lowered and the air can pass between them and the palate.
4. The vocal cords are brought
together and vibrate. Recommendations. 1. Put the tip of the tongue against the
alveolar ridge feeling a firm contact with it.
2. Push the air through the mouth.
[m] <m mm> is a bilabial nasal
sonorant, as in me, summer, seem, comb, autumn; note that <m> may precede
mute <b n>.
[m] is a labial nasal sonorant, as in
конецформыначалоформыmahkeme court, mahvetmek
to destroy, mavi blue, the color. [m] occurs in all word positions, spelt
"m, mm, mb, mn", eg mean, summer, seam, comb, autumn
[m] is occlusive. nasal, bilabial..
1. The lips are firmly kept together.
2.The soft palate is lowered and the
air goes through the nose.
.The vocal cords vibrate.
Recommendation. Press your lips together and push the air through the nose.
[n] <n nn> is an alveolar nasal
sonorant, as in neat, knit, gnaw, snow, dinner, gone, open; note that <n>
may be preceded by mute<kg>.
[n] is an alveolar nasal sonorant, as
in nazil how, namaz prayer, natice result. [n] is occlusive nasal, forelingual,
apical, alveolar. .
. The tip of the tongue is pressed
against the alveolar ridge.
. The soft palate is lowered and the
air escapes through the nose. 3. The vocal cords vibrate. . Put the tip of the
tongue against the alveolar ridge and push the air through the nose.
[p] <p pp> is a relatively strong, or fortis, voiceless
bilabial stop. It is usually accompanied by aspiration when initial a stressed
syllable,' as in pin, appear, impatient, play. Initially in an unstressed
syllable and finally aspiration is relatively weak, as in polite, upper, lip.
When [s] precedes [p] initially in a syllable, there is practically no
aspiration, as in spin.
[p] <p pp> is a fortis, voiceless labial, plosive,
relatively strong stop in Turkish. It is usually accompanied by aspiration when
initial stressed syllable,' as in pahalı expensive. Initially in
an unstressed syllable and finally aspiration is relatively weak, as in parmak,
finger, patlak, a burst, a puncture.
[r] <r rr> is a post-alveolar lateral sonorant, as in
red, write, tree, mirror, very.
[r] is a alveolar, flap, lateral sonorant, as in rahat peace
and quiet, конецформыначалоформыreddetmek to
refuse, to reject, resim picture.
[r] is constrictive, medial,
forelingual, cacuminal, post-alveolar.. 1. The tip of the tongue is held in a
position near to but not touching the back of the alveolar ridge, the front
part of the tongue is low and the back is rather high so that the tongue has a
curved shape (cacuminal articulation).
2.
The
position of the lips is determined by that of the following vowel.
3.The soft palate is raised and the
air flows quietly between the tip of the tongue, and the palate.
4. The vocal cords vibrate. 1. Put
the tip of the tongue against the back of the alveolar ridge without touching
it. If you touch the alveolar ridge with the tip of the tongue there will be a
firm contact between them and the resulting sound is [1] but not [r]. Remember
that [r] is a purely gliding sound with no sudden change, e.g. light - right,
low - row, lock - rock.
2. Keep the lips in the position for
the following vowel, eg reach (spread lips), root (rounded lips).
. Push the air through the mouth so
that you could hear a smooth glide.
[s] <s ss с sc x [ks]> is a fortis,
voiceless, alveolar fricative, as in so, pass, nice, science, axe.
[s] is a fortis, voiceless, alveolar
fricative, as in saat clock, sadece only, sari yellow.
[t] <t tt d> is a fortis,
voiceless, apical stop, as in take, Thames, Tliomas; it is spelt <d> in
the inflection -ed after fortis consonants other than [t], e.g. jumped, looked.
It is aspirated when initial in a stressed syllable, as in take, attend, obtain,
try, and nonaspirated after [s], as in stone. The place of articulation is most
often alveolar but it may be dental when a dental fricative follows, as in at
this. In RP and most other accents the place of articulation is postalveolar
when /r/ follows, as in true.
[t] is a fortis, voiceless, alveolar,
plosive stop, as in tahmin an estimate, guess tahmin etmek, to guess takdim a
presentation. It is aspirated when initial in a stressed syllable, as in конецформыначалоформыtehdit threat, tehdit etmek,
to threaten, to menace tehlike danger.
[t, d] occur in word initial, word
medial and word final positions
[t] - spelt "t, tt, th,
ed", eg take, attend, Thomas, jumped, put, takip a following.
[d] - spelt "d, dd", eg
dog, date, middle, leader, mad, raised, ada island.
[t, d] are occlusive, plosive,
forelingual, apical, alveolar; [t] is strong and voiceless, [d] is weak and
voiced, in final position it is partly devoiced.
[k, g] occur in word initial, word
medial and word final positions, [k] - spelt "k; c; cc + a, o, u; qu;
ch", eg kite, card, accord, conquer, stomach, kadar as…as, kara black; [g]
- spelt "g; gg; gh; gu", eg garden, giggle, ghost, guard, gitmek to
go.. 1. The complete obstruction is made by the tip of the tongue firmly
pressed against the middle of the alveolar ridge.
2.The soft palate is raised and the
air coming into the mouth is trapped for a short time. Then it breaks the
obstruction with a slight explosion.
3.The vocal cords do not vibrate when
[t] is formed. For [d] they are drawn together and vibrate when it occurs
before vowels or in intervocalic positions, eg done, ladder, tedavi medical
treatment.
4. The breath effort for [t] is very strong, for [d] it is
weak.
Recommendations.
1.Raise the back of the tongue to the
soft palate so that you can feel a firm contact of them. Push the air from the
lungs breaking the obstruction with a slight popping noise.
2.Make the sound [k] strong and aspirated, eg cool, calm.
The Turkish consonants [k, g] are
produced in a similar way, but the breath effort for the Turkish [к] is not so strong as for the English
[k] which is aspirated. In word final position only [k] is heard, eg barmak a
finger, while the English [g] in final positions is partially devoiced, dog,
dialogue.
[v] <v f ph> is a lenis
labio-dental fricative, as in voice, of, nephew. It is fully voiced in medial
positions between voiced sounds, as in ever, nephew, silver, and partially or
completely devoiced initially and finally, as in voice, leave, of.
[v] is a lenis alveolar fricative, as in vaat promise, veri
data.. It is fully voiced in medial positions between voiced sounds, as in
tavuk chicken (hen), tedavi (medical) treatment, and partially or completely
devoiced initially and finally, as in vermek to give.
[z] <s ss z zz x [gz] > is a
lenis alveolar fricative, as in roses, scissors, zoo, dizzy, exact. It is fully
voiced in word-medial positions, as m easy, thousand, husband, and partially or
completely devoiced in word-initial and final positions, as in zeal, is, rose.
[z] is a lenis alveolar fricative, as
in zahmet trouble, difficulty, zan guess, supposition. It is fully voiced in
word-medial positions, as in guzel beautiful,taze fresh, and partially or
completely devoiced in word-initial and final positions, as in basit simple.
[s, z] are constrictive fricative, forelingual, apical alveolar, [s] is strong
and voiceless, [z] is weak and voiced, in final position it is partially
devoiced.. 1. The tip of the tongue is close to the teeth ridge. The narrowing
is round, because of the groove in the blade of the tongue.
2.
The
teeth are very close together.
3.
The
vocal cords do not vibrate when [s] is produced. For [z] they vibrate when it
occurs before vowels or in intervocalic positions, eg zone, easy.
4. The friction for [s] is
strong
Recommendations.
. Put the tip and the blade of the
tongue close to the alveolar ridge. The air should hit the tongue at the very
centre of the teeth ridge. Push the air through the narrowing very quickly, so
that the strong friction is heard. For [z] push it more slowly, so that the
friction is weaker. Alternate strong and weak friction for [s-z].
2. Keep the teeth very close
together.
2) Now it is time to examine some
differences between English and Turkish consonants.
[c] is a voiceless, alveolar
fricative like [s] in “pleasure”. E.g. genciz we are sick , gelecek s/he/it
will come, calpack a hat.
[з] - is a fortis palatal-alveoalar fricative, sounds like [ch] as in the
word "Turkish", e.g. зocuk
child, genз young, genзtir s/he is young.
[dz] or [ʤ] is a lenis palatal affricate,
as in jam, gem, midget, suggest, adjacent, grandeur, soldier, Norwich. It is
fully voiced in medial positions between voiced sounds, as in midget, urgent,
agenda, major, and partially or fully devoiced in initial and final'positions,
as in jest, ridge, age, change.are only two affricates in English: [ʧ, ʤ]. In Turkish we have [ʧ, ʤ]. They are
occlusive-constrictives because a complete obstruction to the stream of air is
formed and it is released slowly, with friction, [ʧ, ʤ] are bicentral. They have
two narrowings, both flat, the second focus being between the front part of the
tongue and the hard palate (front secondary focus).
[ʧ, ʤ] are palato-alveolar,
forelingual apical.
[ʧ] is strong (fortis), [ʤ] is weak (lenis).
[ʤ] is fully voiced in word
initial position before a vowel or in intervocalic position, eg Jack, pigeon.
In word final position it is partly devoiced [ʤ], eg George, [tf] is
voiceless in all positions.
[ʧ, ʤ] are
occlusive-constrictive, forelingual, apical, palato-alveolar, bicentral; [tf]
is strong and voiceless, [ʧ] is weak and voiced. In
word final position it is partially devoiced.. 1. The tip of the tongue touches
the fcack part of the teeth ridge.
2.
The
front part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate forming the front
secondary focus (a flat narrowing).
3.
The"soft
palate is raised 50 that the ureatrris-trapped for a short time (because of the
complete obstruction between the tongue-tip and the teeth ridge) then the
obstruction is released slowly and the friction is heard.
4. The lips are slightly rounded.
[g] <g gg gh> is a lenis dorsal
stop, as in go, juggling, ghost, guard; note mute <g> in gnaw, diaphragm,
sign, etc. It is fully voiced between voiced sounds, as in eager, eagle,
juggling, angry, while in initial and final positions it is partially or
completely devoiced, as in go, dog, vague.
[g] is a velar plosive stop. It is
always a hard 'g' as in gazete newspaper, gece night, geç late, gerek, necessary
etc. It is never soft.
[ğ] - Not exactly a
consonant, it rather distinguishes properties of the vowel it follows. When
following a member of the 'dark' vowels (a, o, u, ı) it lengthens the vowel,
causing it to be held for two beats instead of one. This is not the same as
stress, but rather like the difference between 'saw off' and 'soft': the former
'aw' sound is held for twice the time of the latter. When following a member of
the 'light' vowels (e, i, u) it becomes a gliding 'i' sound. This letter does
not exist in the English alphabet.
[j] is a palatal sonorant ("semivowel"), as in yes,
young, onion. It is often found in the cluster [ju:], spelt <u ew eu eau ue
ui>, as in muse, new, beauty, suit.
[j] is a palatal approximant as in
jandarma gendarme.
[h] <h wh> is a fortis,
voiceless, glottal fricative, found only in syllable-initial positions
(word-initially and word-medially), as in he, who, ahead, perhaps, manhood.
[h] is constrictive fricative,
glottal, voiceless. As [h] occurs only in рrе-vocalic positions it is
the sound of breath passing between the vocal cords and out of the mouth which
is already held really for the following vowel: before [i:j the mouth is in
position fur [i:], before [u:] it is ready for [u:] and so on; so there are
many [h]-sounds in English because different-types of friction will be heard
for it in the sequences [hi:], [ha:], [hu:] and others.. In order to make
[h]-sounds, hold the mouth ready for the vowel and push a short gasp of breath
by the lungs; breathe the air out weakly adding some slight fricative noise to
the vowel.
[h] is a fortis, voiceless, glottal fricative in Turkish. /h/
is optionally deleted in fast speech in Turkish, but only in certain segmental
contexts /h/ is optionally deleted before sonorant consonants fihrist ~ fi:rist
index, tehlike ~ te:like danger, but not after them merhum merum the late,
ilham ilam inspiration./h/ is deleted from preconsonantal or final position,
compensatory lengthening of the receding vowel occurs, as in kohne ~ ko:ne old.
/h/ is optionally deleted after voiceless stops as in huphe ~
hupe suspicion, ethem ~ etem proper name; and affricates methhul ~ methul
unknown, but not before them as in kahpe ka:pe harlot, sahte sa:te counterfeit,
ahthi a:thi cook.
/h/ is optionally deleted before and after voiceless fricatives
as in mahsus ~ ma:sus special to, ishal ~ isal diarrhea, safha ~ safa step.
/h/ is optionally deleted intervocalically muhendis ~ muendis
engineer, muhafaza ~ muafaza protection, as well as word-finally timsah ~ timsa
crocodile, but not word-initially hava *ava ‘air’.
[ʃ] <sh ch sch s ss t sc с х [ks]> is a fortis,
voiceless, post-alveolar fricative, as in ship, machine, schedule, sure,
assure, mansion, session, Russian, nation, conscience, special, ocean, luxury.
It is spelt <s ss> before <u>, <s ss sc c> before <i>, and
<c> before <e>. Therefore textbooks usually distinguish <ti si
sci ci ce> as graphs for [s].
[Ө, ∂] are constrictive fricative, forelingual,
apical, palate-alveolar, bicentral; [Ө] is strong and voiceless, [∂]
is weak and voiced, in final position it is partially devoiced.
Articulation. 1. The tip of the
tongue is close to the back part of the teeth ridge forming a flat narrowing.
2.
The
front part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate, forming the front
secondary focus, thus palatalizing the sounds.
3.
The
lips are neutral or slightly rounded.
4.
The
vocal cords do not vibrate when [Ө] is pronounced, for [∂] they
vibrate when it ccurs before vowels, eg pleasure.
Recommendations.
.Start from [s], then put the tip of
the tongue a bit backwards. Draw the breath inwards to check that the tip is in
the right place. Keep this position and then raise the rest of the tongue to
say the vowel [i], slightly round the lips and push the breath through
strongly.[Ө] the friction is strong, stronger than for [∂], but
less noisy than for [s]. For [∂] the friction is weak.
[š] or [ʃ] is a fortis, voiceless,
post-alveolar fricative, as in конецформыначалоформыşarap wine, конецформыначалоформыşaşırmak to be surprised,
confused, şeffaf transparent, clear, şehir city. It is spelt
<s> before <u> as in şu that (which is almost
within my reach) şunlar, those, şüphe doubt; <s>
before <i> as in şiir poem şair, poet. This letter is
added in the Turkish alphabet.
[∂] <th> is a lenis
dental fricative in English. It is fully voiced in word medial positions, as in
breathing, father, gather, and partially or completely devoiced in word-initial
and final positions, as in the, this, with.
[θ] <th> is a fortis,
voiceless, dental fricative, as in thought, author, earth.fricative consonants
comprise four pairs [f, v; Ө; ∂, s, z; ʃ
ʒ] and
[h].are constrictive because the air passage is constricted and an incomplete
obstruction is formed; they are fricative, because the air passes through the
narrowing with audible friction. All the fricatives except [ʃ
ʒ] are
unicentral. [ʃ ʒ] are bicentral, because
they have two places of articulation or two foci, the second being produced by
the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate thus forming a
front secondary focus.the production of fricative consonants the narrowing at
the place of articulation is flat. Only when [s, z] are produced it is round.
[θ, ʒ] are fore-lingual,
apical, interdental, articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between
the upper and the lower teeth; [s, z; θ, ʒ] are forelingual, apical
alveolar, produced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge; [h] is
glottal, made in the glottis.
[f, Ө, s, ʃ h] are strong (fortis);
[v, ∂, z, ʒ] are weak (lenis).
Voicing, [v, ∂, z, ʒ] are fully voiced in word
initial position before a vowel as in veal these, zone, giraffe, or in an
intervocalic position as in cover, father, bosom.word final position they are
partly devoiced as in love |lav], with
[wid], rose [nuzj.
[f, Ө, s, ʃ h] are voiceless, the
vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate.consonants are oral, the soft palate
is raised and the air escapes through the mouth.
[ž] or [ʒ] <s z g x [gž] > is a lenis
post-alveolar fricative, as in vision, measure, seizure, prestige, luxurious.
It is fully voiced word-medially, as in pleasure,, usual, decision, and may-be
partially or completely devoiced word-finally (word-initially it is found only
in a few weakly integrated French loanwords, such as jabot, gigue).
[η] <ng n> is a dorsal
nasal sonorant, as in sing, singer, sink, lynx, uncle, tongue.
[η] is occlusive, nasal,
backlingual, velar. . 1. The back part of the tongue is pressed to the soft
palate.
2.The soft palate is lowered and the
air goes through the nose.
3.The vocal cords vibrate.
Recommendations. 1.Open the mouth
wide, raise the back of the tongue to the soft palate so that you can feel the
firm contact of them. Push the air through the nose. The tip of the tongue is
low in the mouth. Be sure to keep this mouth position. At the end of the sound
let it die away into silence with no suggestion of [k] or [g].
[w] <w wh qu [kw] u> is a
labial dorsal' sonorant, as in we, which, quick, language; note also one, once,
choir, suit with [w].
[w] is constrictive, medial,
bilabial, bicentral. In Turkish instead of [w] the phoneme [v] is used. . 1.
The lips are firmly rounded and slightly protruded forming an incomplete
obstruction.
. The soft palate is raised and the
air goes to the mouth.
3.The back part of the tongue is raised
towards the soft pal ate forming the secondary focus.
4.The sides of the tongue are raised
and the air goes along the central part of the tongue.
5.The vocal cords vibrate.
Recommendations.
. Keep the lips well rounded and even
slightly protruded forming a round narrowing for the air stream.
. Push the air through the mouth.
The Turkish alphabet has no Q, W or X. Instead, these are
transliterated into Turkish as K, V, and KS, respectively.
[č]is a fortis, voiceless,
alveolar fricative, as in çağdaş modern, contemporary, çalışmak to work. This letter
is added in the Turkish alphabet and that is why does not exist in English.
Summary
has been hypothesized that sounds which are less perceptible
are more likely to be altered than more salient sounds, the rationale being
that the loss of information resulting from a change in a sound which is
difficult to perceive is not as great as the loss resulting from a change in a
more salient sound. are 24 consonants in the English language. The Turkish
language has 20 consonant phonemes. There are 13 consonants that are the same
in both languages. Among them are [b], [c], [d], [f], [k], [l], [m], [n], [p],
[r], [t], [v] and [z]. are 3 consonants which do not exist in the Turkish
language. They are [q], [w] and [x]. Instead, these are transliterated into Turkish
as [k] [v], and [ks], respectively. there 3 consonants which are added in the
Turkish alphabet. They are [ç], [ğ], [ş].
Conclusion
analyzed the consonant sounds and having found some
similarities and differences between consonant sounds of English and Turkish
language we can come to the following conclusions:
) [p, b] are forelingual, bilabial, apical alveolar stops [t,
d], backlingual, velar [k, g] produced with the back part of the tongue against
the soft palate.
[p, t, k] are strong or fortis as they are pronounced with
more muscular energy and a stronger breath effort than [b, d, g] which are weak
or lenis.
[p, b] are occlusive, plosive,
bilabial; [p] is strong and voiceless, [b] is weak and voiced, in final
position it is partly devoiced.
[tʃ] <ch tch t> is a
fortis, voiceless, palato-alveolar affricate
[č] is a fortis, voiceless,
alveolar fricative
[f, v] are constrictive fricative,
labio-dental; [f] is strong and voiceless; [v] is weak and voiced, in the final
position it is partly devoiced.
[θ, ʒ] are fore-lingual,
apical, interdental, articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between
the upper and the lower teeth; [s, z; θ, ʒ] are forelingual, apical
alveolar, produced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge; [h] is
glottal, made in the glottis.
[t, d] are occlusive, plosive,
forelingual, apical, alveolar; [t] is strong and voiceless, [d] is weak and
voiced, in final position it is partly devoiced.
[z] is a lenis alveolar fricative, as
in zahmet trouble, difficulty, zan guess, supposition. It is fully voiced in
word-medial positions, as in guzel beautiful,taze fresh, and partially or
completely devoiced in word-initial and final positions, as in basit simple.
[s, z] are constrictive fricative, forelingual, apical alveolar, [s] is strong
and voiceless, [z] is weak and voiced, in final position it is partially
devoiced.
) There are only two affricates in
English: [ʧ, ʤ]. In Turkish we have [ʧ, ʤ]. They are
occlusive-constrictives because a complete obstruction to the stream of air is
formed and it is released slowly, with friction, [ʧ, ʤ] are bicentral. They have
two narrowings, both flat, the second focus being between the front part of the
tongue and the hard palate (front secondary focus).
[ʧ, ʤ] are palato-alveolar,
forelingual apical.
[ʧ] is strong (fortis), [ʤ] is weak (lenis).
[ʤ] is fully voiced in word
initial position before a vowel or in intervocalic position, eg Jack, pigeon.
In word final position it is partly devoiced [ʤ], eg George, [tf] is
voiceless in all positions.
[ʧ, ʤ] are
occlusive-constrictive, forelingual, apical, palato-alveolar, bicentral; [tf]
is strong and voiceless, [ʧ] is weak and voiced. In
word final position it is partially devoiced.
[ğ] - Not exactly a consonant, it
rather distinguishes properties of the vowel it follows.
When following a member of the
'light' vowels (e, i, u) it becomes a gliding 'i' sound. This letter does not
exist in the English alphabet.
[h] is constrictive fricative,
glottal, voiceless. As [h] occurs only in рrе-vocalic positions it is
the sound of breath passing between the vocal cords and out of the mouth which
is already held really for the following vowel: before [i:j the mouth is in
position fur [i:], before [u:] it is ready for [u:] and so on;
[ʃ] <sh ch sch s ss t sc с х [ks]> is a fortis,
voiceless, post-alveolar fricative, as in ship, machine, schedule, sure,
assure, mansion, session, Russian, nation, conscience, special, ocean, luxury.
It is spelt <s ss> before <u>, <s ss sc c> before <i>, and
<c> before <e>. Therefore textbooks usually distinguish <ti si
sci ci ce> as graphs for [s].
[θ, ∂] are constrictive
fricative, forelingual, apical, palate-alveolar, bicentral; [Ө] is strong
and voiceless, [∂] is weak and voiced, in final position it is partially
devoiced.
[θ, ∂] are fore-lingual, apical, interdental,
articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the upper and the
lower teeth; [s, z; θ, ʒ] are forelingual, apical
alveolar, produced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge; [h] is
glottal, made in the glottis.
[f, Ө, s, ʃ h] are strong (fortis);
[v, ∂, z, ʒ] are weak (lenis).
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Analysis, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
. Jakobson R. & L. Waugh (1979). The sound
shape of language. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
. Jakobson R. (1971). Selected writings, vol.
2: Word and language. The Hague: Mouton.
. Jespersen O. (1946). A modern English grammar
on historical principles. 7 vols. (Part I: Sounds and spellings [1909]).
London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
. Kiparsky P. (1985). Some consequences of
lexical phonology. Phonology Yearbook 2:
. Kiparsky, P. (1987). On theory and
interpretation. In Fabb, N., D. Attridge, A. Durant & C. MacCabe (eds.),
The linguistics of writing: arguments between language and literature. New
York: Methuen Inc. 185-98.
. Lass R. (1984). Phonology: an introduction to
basic concepts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
. Malone J.L. (1982). Generative phonology and
Turkish rhyme. Linguistic Inquiry 13: 550-3.
. Malone J.L. (1988b). Underspecification
theory and Turkish rhyme. Phonology 5: 293-7.
. Manaster Ramer, A. (1994). Stefan George and
phonological theory. Phonology 11: 317-23.
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Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
36. Ohala J.J. (1986). Consumer’s guide to evidence in
phonology. Phonology Yearbook 3: 3-26.
. R.T. Oehrle (eds.), Language sound structure:
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References
According to the Degree of Noise
|
Class A. Noise Consonants
|
Class B. Sonorants
|
Vary: 1. In the manner of
articulation. 2. In the place of articulation. 3. In the work of the vocal
cords. 4. In the force of articulation.
|
Vary: 1. In the manner of
articulation. 2. In the place of articulation. 3. In the position of the
soft palate. 4. In the direction of the air stream.
|
Ciass A. Noise consonants
|
|
b, d. g, v, d. z, з,Ф
|
p, t, k, f, Э, sj.1f.li
|
According to the work of the vocal
cords
|
voiced
|
voiceless
|
According to the force of
articulation
|
weak (lenis)
|
strong (fortis
|
Active org./ place of obstruction
|
Forelingual
|
Mediolingual
|
Backlingual
|
Dental/Interdental
|
d, t
|
|
|
Alveolar
|
t, d, n, l, s, z
|
|
|
Alveolar-palatal
|
c, g, s, z
|
|
|
Post-alveolar
|
r
|
|
|
Palatal
|
|
j
|
|
Velar
|
|
|
k, g, n
|
The Classification of English
Consonants According to the Place of Articulation
Labial
|
Lingual
|
Glottal
|
Bilabial
|
Labiodental
|
Forelingual
|
Medio-lingual palatal
|
Back-lingual velar
|
|
|
|
interdental
|
alveolar
|
post-alveolar
|
palato-alveolar
|
|
|
|
P.b m w
|
f,v
|
e s z n
|
t,d
|
r
|
|
ʒ θ
|
k, g
|
h 1
|
Noise Consonants
|
Sonorants
|
|
Occlusive stops (plosives)
|
Constrictive fricatives
|
Occlusive-constrictive
„(affricates)
|
Occlusive
|
Constrictive
|
|
|
p,b t, d k,g
|
f, v s, г h
|
ʧ, ʤ
|
m n 0
|
w 1 r j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Letter
|
IPA
|
English approximation
|
Letter
|
IPA
|
English approximation
|
B
|
b
|
b
|
As b in bat
|
M
|
m
|
m
|
As m in man
|
C
|
c
|
dʒ
|
As j in job
|
N
|
n
|
n
|
As n in not
|
Ç
|
ç
|
tʃ
|
As ch in chat
|
P
|
p
|
p
|
As p in put
|
D
|
d
|
d
|
As d in dog
|
R
|
r
|
ɾ
|
As r in rat
|
F
|
f
|
f
|
As f in far
|
S
|
s
|
s
|
As s in sand
|
G
|
g
|
g
|
As g in gap
|
Ş
|
ş
|
ʃ
|
As sh in she
|
Ğ
|
ğ
|
:
|
T
|
t
|
t
|
As t in top
|
H
|
h
|
h
|
As h in hot
|
V
|
v
|
v
|
As v in valve
|
J
|
j
|
ʒ
|
As g in montage
|
Z
|
z
|
z
|
As z in zip
|
K
|
k
|
k
|
As c in cat
|
|
|
|
|
L
|
l
|
l
|
As l in let
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Consonant phonemes of Standard English
|
Bilabial
|
Labio dental
|
Inter dental
|
Dental
|
Alveolar
|
Alveo palatal
|
Palatal
|
Velar Uvular
|
Pharyngeal
|
Glottal
|
Plosive
|
p, b
|
|
|
t, d
|
|
|
|
k, g
|
|
|
Nasal
|
m
|
|
|
n
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Trill
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Flap
|
|
|
|
|
r
|
|
|
|
|
|
Fricative
|
|
f, v
|
θ, ∂
|
|
s, z
|
ʃ
|
|
|
|
h
|
Approximant
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
j
|
|
|
|
Lateral Approximant
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Affricate
|
|
|
|
|
|
ʤ
|
|
|
|
|
phonemes of Standard Turkish
|
Bilabial
|
Labiodental
|
Dental
|
Alveolar
|
Postalveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
Plosives
|
p
|
b
|
|
t
|
d
|
|
|
c
|
j
|
k
|
ɡ
|
|
Nasals
|
m
|
|
n
|
|
|
|
|
|
Fricatives
|
|
f
|
v
|
s
|
z
|
|
ʃ
|
ʒ
|
|
|
ɣ
|
h
|
|
Affricates
|
|
|
|
ʧ
|
ʤ
|
|
|
|
|
Tap
|
|
|
|
r
|
|
|
|
|
Approximant
|
|
|
|
|
|
j
|
|
|
Lateral approximants
|
|
|
l
|
|
l
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bb same as in English
|
Cc like “s” in “pleasure”. Ç - sounds like “ch” as
in the word "Turkish"
|
Dd same as in English.
|
Ff same as in English
|
Gg as "g" in
"God". Ğğ is silent, but makes the
vowels before it long when it appears at the end of a word or before a
consonant. Between vowels it is either silent or is pronounced (y)
|
Hh as in “Hello”
|
Jj as in “garage”
|
Kk same as in English.
|
Ll like “l” in “life”.
|
Mm same as in English
|
Nn same as in English
|
Pp same as in English
|
Rr same as in English
|
Ss same as in English, Şş as in
"shower"
|
Tt same as in English.
|
Vv just like English.
|
Zz just like English.
|
Q, W, X don’t exist in the Turkish
alphabet
|
Ç, Ğ, Ş, are added letters in
the Turkish alphabet.
|