|
Syntagmatic relations
|
Paradigmatic relations
|
He got a letter.
I received a note.
She obtained an epistle.
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Lecture 4
Context may be regarded in aspects as
following:
ü
linguistic
ü
lexical
ü
grammatical
ü
extra-linguistic
(of situation)
Conceptual (semantic)
fields.
Hoponymic (hierachia)
structures.
Classification of
vocabulary into thematic groups is based on common contextual associations
(the result of regular co-occurrence of words in similar, repeatedly used
contexts).
The main criterion
underlying semantic classification of vocabulary items on the paradigmatic axis
is type of meaning relationships between words.
The criterion of common
concept serves to classify words into semantic fields and lexico-semantic
groups.
Semantic relationship of
inclusion is the main feature of hyponymic hierarchical structure. Semantic
similarity and semantic contrast is the type of relationship which underlies
the classification of lexical items into synonymic and antonymic series.
Synonymy and antonymy are correlative and sometimes
overlapping notions. Synonymous relationship of the denotational meaning is in
many cases combined with the difference in the connotational (mainly stylistic)
component.
Synonyms - words different in sound-form but
similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable at least
in some contexts.
Antonyms - words different in sound-form
characterized by different types of semantic contrast of the denotational
meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts.
Word-groups – words put together to form lexical
units make up phrases or word-groups. Come dew to lexical and grammatical
valency of the components.
Lexical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in
various collocations. Restriction of the lexical valency are to be accounted
for by the inner structure of the vocabulary of the English language.
Different meanings of a
polysemantic word may be described through its lexical valency.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear
in various grammatical structures. Restriction of the grammatical valency are
to be accounted for by the grammatical structure of the language. The range of
the grammatical valency of the word is delimited by the part of speech the word
belongs to.
Structurally, word-groups may be classified by the
criterion of distribution into exocentric and endocentric (they
according to the head-word are distinguished nominal, adverbial, verbal,
adjectival).
Semantically, word-groups may be classified into motivated
and non-motivated (phraseological units)
Lecture 5
Phraseological units –
non-motivated word-groups
that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready made units.
Classification:
1.
phraseological
fusions – completely non-motivated
2.
phraseological
unities – partially non-motivated
3.
phraseological
collocations – motivated but made up of words possessing specific lexical
valency. That’s why there is a certain degree of stability in such group.
The criterion of
idiomaticity;
The criterion of
function;
The criterion of context;
Phraseological units might also be shared to:
v
phrasemes – two-member word-groups in which one
of the members has specialized meaning dependent on the second component:
“small hours”.
v
Idioms – the idiomaticity of the whole
word-group; unusualness of collocability or logical incompability of
member-words; usually homonymous with corresponding variable word-groups: red
tape, to let the cat out of the bag.
The distinguishing
feature of the new approach is that phraseology is regarded as a self-contained
branch of linguistics and not as a part of lexicology. According to this
approach phraseology deals with all types of set expressions which are divided into
3 classes:
1.
phraseological
units
2.
phraseomatic
units
3.
border-line cases
Lecture 6
Word structure
There are 2 levels of
approach to the study of word-structure:
v
the level of
morphemic analysis
v
the level of
derivational or word-formation analysis
The basic unit of
morphemic level is the morpheme defined as the smallest indivisible
two-facet language unit.
Three types of morphemic segmentability of words
are distinguished:
·
complete
·
conditional
·
defective
Words of conditional
and defective segmentability are made up of full morphemes and pseudo
(quasi) morphemes. The latter do not rise to the status of full morphemes
either for semantic reasons or because of their unique distribution.
Semantically morphemes fall into:
1. root-morphemes
2. affixational morphemes
Structurally morphemes fall into:
1. free
2. bound
3. semi-free (semi-bound)
The structural types of words
at the morphemic level are described in terms of the number and type of their
ICs (immediate constituents) as monomorphic and polymorphic words.
Derivational level of
analysis aims at finding out the derivative types of words, the interrelation
between them and at finding out how different types of derivatives are
constructed.
Derivationately all words
form 2 structural classes:
1.
simplexes
(non-derived)
·
sufficial
·
prefixal
·
conversions
·
compounds
Each structural type of
complexes shows preference for one or another part of speech. Within part of
speech derivative structures are characterized by a set of derivational
patterns.
Derivational basis differ
from stems both structurally and semantically. Derivational bases are built on
the following language units:
·
stems of various
structure
·
word-forms
·
word-group or
phrases
Each class and subset
bases has its own range of collocability and shows peculiar ties with different
parts of speech.
Derivational affixes form
derived stems by repattering derivational bases. Semantically derivational
affixes present a unity of lexical meaning and other types of meaning:
functional, distributional and differential unlike non-derivational affixes
which lack lexical meaning.
Derivational patterns
(DP) are meaningful arrangements of various types of ICs that can be observed
in a set of words based on their mutual interdependence. DPs can be viewed in
terms of collocability of each IC.
There are 2 types of
DPs: 1) structural that specify base classes and individual affixes.
2) structural-semantic
that specify semantic peculiarities of bases and the individual meaning of the
affix.
DPs of different levels
of generalization signal:
·
the class of
source unit that motivates the derivative and the direction of motivation
between different classes of words.
·
The part of
speech of the derivative.
·
The lexical sets
and semantic features of derivatives.
Lecture 7
Ways of forming
words (according to A.I. Smirnitskiy):
Word-formation is the system of derivative types of
words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the
language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns.
As a subject of study
English word-formation is that branch of English lexicology which studies the
derivative structure of words and the patterns on which the English language
builds new words. Like any other linguistic phenomenon, word-formation may be studied
synchronically and diachronically.
There are 2 types of
word-formation in Modern English:
1.
word-derivation being of 2 kinds like affixation
and conversion
2.
word-
composition
There is every reason to
exclude the shortening of words, lexicalization, blending, acronymy from the
system of word-formation and regard them and other word-forming processes as
specific means of vocabulary refreshment. Sound-and-stress interchange in
Modern English are a means of distinguishing between different words, primarily
between words of different pa5rts of speech.
The degree of
productivity and factors favouring it make an important aspect in synchronic
description of every derivational pattern within the 2 types of word-formation.
Three degrees of
productivity are
distinguished for derivational patterns and individual derivational affixes:
1.
highly productive
2.
productive or
semi- productive
3.
non- productive