Parallel constructions and their Translation
THE MINISTRY OF
HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN THE UZBEK STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY
Translation /
Interpretation faculty
Translation
Theory and Practice Department
Q U A L I F I C A
T I O N P A P E R
parallel constructions and their translation
Done by: Bobur M. Bekmurodov
Scientific
advisor:
Reviewer:
CONTENT
Chapter I. Analysis of the linguistic
literature on the general problems of the syntactic stylistic devices
§ 1.
Compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement in English
§ 2. Parallel constructions and their features
§ 3.
Structural-functional features of Chiasmus. Reversed Parallel Construction
§ 4. Enumeration as a functional equivalent of
Parallel constructions.
§ 5. Features
of dealing with Parallel structures in forming a text.
Chapter II. Problems of translating the Parallel
Constructions from English into Uzbek
§ 1. Equivalence in the translations
of parallel construction
§ 2. Types of equivalents
in the translation of parallel constructions
§ 3. Techniques of
translating the English Parallel Constructions into Uzbek
§
4. The basic ways of translating
the Parallel Constructions from Uzbek into English
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The present graduation qualification paper
deals with the study of English Parallel Constructions and their translation
into Uzbek language which presents certain interest both for the theoretical
investigation and for practical language use.
The actuality of the investigation is
explained on one hand by the profound interest to the function of the syntactic
stylistic devices like parallel constructions in the literary text and in
speech on the other hand, by the absence of widely approved analysis of the
Parallel Constructions and other syntactic stylistic devices from the
syntactic, stylistic, structural and translational points of view.
The novelty of the qualification paper is defined by
concrete result of investigation: special emphasis is laid on various types of
rendering the structure, the stylistic features, and the translation of
syntactic stylistic devices in general and Parallel Construction in Particular.
The aim of the qualification paper is to define
the specific features of the Parallel Constructions in the literary text and in
speech and their rendering in Uzbek.
According to this general aim we have put the following
concrete tasks before the work:
a)
To
analyze the linguistic literature on the general and special problems of syntactic
stylistic devices;
b)
To
analyze the compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement in English;
c)
To
analyze the Parallel Constructions and their features;
d)
To
analyze the structural-functional features of the Reversed Parallel
Constructions;
e)
To
analyze structural-functional properties of Repetition as a type of Parallel
Constructions;
f)
To
analyze Enumeration as a functional equivalent of Parallel Constructions;
g)
To
analyze the general and special problems of translating the Parallel
Constructions from English into Uzbek;
h)
To
analyze the problem of equivalence in the translation of Parallel
Constructions;
i)
To
analyze the techniques of translating the English Parallel Constructions into
Uzbek;
j)
To
analyze the Basic ways of translating the Parallel Constructions from English
into Uzbek;
The methods of investigations used in this
qualification paper are as follows: stylistic, semantic, structural,
distributional, descriptive and translational.
The practical value of the research is
that the material and the results of the given qualification paper can serve as
the material for the theoretical courses of stylistics, grammar, comparative
typology, translation as well can be used for practical lessons in translation,
home reading, conversational practice and current events.
The material includes:
a)
Different
types of explanatory and translation dictionaries;
b)
Scholarly
literature on translation theory, stylistics and grammar;
c)
The
pieces of artistic literature of the British and American authors of the XX
century;
The theoretical importance of the qualification paper is determined
by the necessity of detailed and comprehensive analyses of syntactic stylistic
devices in general and Parallel Constructions in particular, which from a big
layer in the literary language and are very often used in literature fulfilling
various stylistic or pragmatic functions.
The structure of the work. The present qualification paper consist
of an introduction, 2 chapters, a conclusion, and a bibliography.
CHAPTER I
ANALYSIS OF THE LINGUISTIC LITERATURE ON THE GENERAL
PROBLEMS OF THE SYNTACTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES
§ 1. Compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement in
English
The structural syntactical aspect is sometimes regarded as
the crucial issue in stylistic analysis, although the peculiarities of
syntactical arrangement are not so conspicuous as the lexical and
phraseological properties of the utterance. Syntax is figuratively called the
“sinews of style”.
Structural syntactical stylistic devices are in special relations with the intonation involved Prof. Peshkovsky
points out that there is an interdependence between the information and
syntactical properties of the sentence, which may be worded n the following
manner: the more explicit the structural syntactical relations are expressed,
the weaker will be the intonation-pattern of the utterance (to complete
disappearance) and vice-versa, the stronger the intonation, the weaker grow the
evident syntactical relations.
Only after dinner did I make up my mind to go there' and I made
up my mind to go there only after dinner. It was in Bucharest that the Xth
International Congress of Linguists took place' and 'The Xth International
Congress of Linguists took place in Bucharest.'
The second sentences in these pairs can be made emphatic only
by intonation; the first sentences are made emphatic by means, of the syntactical
patterns: 'Only after dinner did I...' and 'It was... that'...'
The problem of syntactical stylistic devices appears, to be
closely linked not only with what makes an utterance more emphatic by also with
the more general problem of predication. As is known, the English affirmative
sentence is regarded as neutral if it maintains the regular word-order, i.e.
subject—predicate object (or oilier secondary members of the sentence, as they
are called). Any other order of the parts of the sentence may also carry the
necessary information, but the impact on the reader will be different. Even a
slight change in the word-order of a sentence, or in the order of the sentences
in a more complicated syntactical unit will inevitably cause a definite modification
of the meaning of the whole. An almost imperceptible rhythmical design
introduced into a prose sentence, or a sudden break in the sequence of the
parts of the sentence, or any other change will add something to the volume of
information contained in the original sentence.
Unlike the syntactical expressive means of the language,
which are naturally used in discourse in a straight-forward natural manner, syntactical
stylistic devices are perceived as elaborate designs aimed at having a
definite impact on the reader. It will be borne in mind that any SD is meant to
be understood as a device and is calculated to produce a desired stylistic
effect.
When viewing the stylistic functions of different syntactical
designs we must first of all take into consideration two aspects:
1. The juxtaposition of different parts of the utterance.
2. The way the parts are connected with each other.
In addition to these two large groups of EMs and SDs two
other groups may be distinguished:
3. Those based on the peculiar use of colloquial
constructions.
4. Those based on the stylistic use of structural meaning.
Stylistic Inversion
Wo r d - o r d e r is a crucial syntactical problem in many languages.
In English it has peculiarities which have been caused by the concrete and
specific way the language has developed. O. Jespersen states that the English
language, "...has developed a tolerably fixed word-order which in the
great majority of cases shows without fail what is the Subject of the
sentence." - This "tolerably fixed word-order" is Subject-Verb
(Predicate) —Object (S—P—O). Further, Jespersen mentions
1 Пешковский А.М. Интонация и грамматика.- «Известия
русского языка и словесности». Л., 1928, т.1, кн. 2, с.463
s Jespersen, 0. Essentials of
English Grammar. Ldn, 1943, p. 99
It was found that the order S- P-O was used in from 82 to 97
per cent of all sentences containing all three members, while the percentage
for Beowulf was 16 and for King Alfred's prose 40.
This predominance of S—P—0 word-order makes conspicuous any change
in the structure of the sentence and inevitably calls forth a modification in
the intonation design.
The most conspicuous places in the sentence are considered to
be the first and the last: the first place because the full force of the stress
can be felt at the beginning of an utterance and the last place because there
is a pause after ii. This traditional word-order had developed a definite
intonation design. Through frequency o\ repetition this design has
imposed itself on any sentence even though there are changes introduced in the
sequence of the component parts. Hence the clash between semantically
insignificant elements of the sentence when they are placed in structurally
significant position and the intonation which follows the recognized pattern.
Thus in Dickens' much quoted sentence:
'Talent Mr. Micawber has; capital Mr. Micawber has not."
The first and the last positions being prominent, the verb has
and the negative not get a fuller volume of stress than they would
in ordinary (uninverted) word-order. In the traditional word-order the
predicates has and has nut are closely attached to their objects talent
and capital. English predicate-object groups are so bound together '
that when we tear the object away from .:s predicate-, the latter remains
dangling in the sentence and in this portion sometime- call., forth a change in
meaning of the predicate word. In the inverted word-order not only the objects
talent and capital become conspicuous but also the predicates has
and has not.
In this example the effect
or the inverted word-order is backed up by two other stylistic devices: antithesis
and parallel construction. Unlike grammatical inversion does not change the
structural meaning of the sentence that is, the change in the juxtaposition of
the members of the sentence doesn’t indicate structural meaning but has some
superstructural functions. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching
logical stress or additional emotional emotional colouring to the surface
meaning of the utterance. Therefore a specific intonation pattern is the
inevitable of inversion.
Stylistic inversion in
Modern English should not be regarded as a violation of the norms of standard
English. It is only the practical realization of what is potential in the
language itself.
The following patterns of
stylistic inversion are most frequently met in both English prose and English
poetry.
1.
The object is
placed at the beginning of the sentence (see the example above)
2.
The attribute is
placed after the word it modifies (position of the attribute). This model is
often used when there is more than one attribute, for example:
“With fingers weary
and worn …” (Thomas Hood)
“Once upon a midnight dreary …” (E.A. Poe)
3.
a) The
predicative is placed before the subject, as in
“A good generous
prayer it was.” (Mark Twain)
or b) The predicative
stands before the link-verb and both are placed before the subject, as in
“Rude am I in my
speech …” (Shakespeare)
4.
The adverbial
modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence, as in:
“Eagerly I wished
the morrow.” (Poe)
“My dearest daughter, at
your feet I fall.” (Dryden)
“A tone of most
extraordinary comparison Miss Tox said it in.” (Dicens)
5.
Both modifier and
predicate' stand before the subject. as in:
"In went Mr. Pickwick." (Dickens)
"Down dropped the breeze..." (Coleridge)
These five models comprise the most common and recognized models
of inversion.
However, in modern English and American poetry, as has been
shown elsewhere, there appears a definite tendency to experiment with the
word-order to the extent which may even render the message unintelligible. In
this case there may be an almost unlimited number of rearrangements of
the members of the sentence.
Inversion as a stylistic device is always sense-motivated.
There is a tendency
to account for inversion in poetry by rhythmical considerations. This may
sometimes be true, but really talented pots will never sacrifice sense for form
and in the majority of cases inversion in poetry is called forth by considerations
of content rather than rhythm.
Inverted word-order, or inversion, is one of the forms of
what are known as emphatic constructions. What is generally called traditional
word-order is nothing more than unemphatic construction. Emphatic constructions
have so far been regarded as non-typical structures and therefore are considered
as violations of the regular word-order in the sentence. But in practice these
structures are as common as the fixed or traditional word-order structures.
Therefore inversion must be regarded as an expressive means of the language
having typical structural models.
Sometimes one of the
secondary parts of a sentence by some specific consideration of the writer is
placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to.
Such parts of structures are called detached. They seem to dangle in the
sentence as isolated parts.
The detached part, being
torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is
given prominence by intonation. The structural patterns of detached
constructions have not yet been classified, but (lie most noticeable cases are
those in which an attribute or an adverbial modifier is placed not in
immediate proximity to its referent, but in some other position, as in the
following examples:
1) "Steyne rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and
with fury in his eyes” (Thackeray)
2) "Sir Pitt came in first, very much flushed, and
rather unsteady in his gait." (Thackeray)
Sometimes a nominal phrase is thrown into the sentence
forming a syntactical unit with the rest of the sentence, as in:
“And he walked slowly pail again, along the river—an evening
of clear, quiet beauty, all harmony and comfort, except within his
heart." (Galsworthy)
The essential quality of detached construction lies in the fact
that the isolated parts represent a kind of independent whole thrust into the sentence
or placed in a position which will make the phrase (or word) seem
independent. But a detached phrase cannot rise to the rank of a primary member.
This clash of the structural and semantic aspects of detached constructions
produces the desired effect-forcing the reader to interpret the logical
connections between the component parts of the sentence. Logical ties between
them always exist in spite of the absence of syntactical indicators.
Detached constructions in their common forms make the written
variety of language akin to the spoken variety where the relation between the
component parts is effectively materialized by means of intonation. Detached
construction, as it were, becomes a peculiar device bridging the norms of
written and spoken manner.
Here are some more examples of detached constructions:
“Daylight was dying, the moon rising, gold behind the
poplars.” (Galsworthy)
“I want to go,’ he said, miserable.” (Galsworthy)
“She was lovely: all of her – delightful.” (Dreiser)
The italicized phrases and words in these sentences seem to
be isolated, but still the connection with the primary members of the
corresponding sentences is clearly implied. Thus ‘gold behind the poplars’ may
be interpreted as a simile or a metaphor: the moan like gold was rising
behind-the poplars, or the moon rising, it was gold...
Detached construction sometimes causes the simultaneous
realization of two grammatical meanings of a word. In the sentence" 'I
want to go,’ he said, miserable", the last word might possibly
have been understood as an adverbial modifier to the word said if not
for the comma, though grammatically miserably would be expected. The
pause indicated by the comma implies that miserable is an adjective used
absolutely and referring to the pronoun he.
The same can he said about Dreiser's sentence with the word delightful.
Here again the mark of punctuation plays an important role. The dash
standing before the word makes the word conspicuous and, being isolated, it
becomes the culminating point of the climax—lovely...—delightful, i.e.
the peak of the whole utterance. The phrase all of her is also somehow
isolated. The general impression suggested by the implied intonation is a
strong feeling of admiration; and, as is usually the case, strong feelings
reject coherent and logical syntax
In the English language detached constructions are generally
used in the belles-lettres prose style and mainly with words that have some
explanatory function, for example:
"June stood in front, fending off this idle curiosity – a
little bit of a thing, as somebody said, 'all hair and spirit ..." (Galsworthy)
Detached construction as a stylistic device is a typification
of the syntactical peculiarities of colloquial language.
Detached construction is a stylistic phenomenon which has so
far been little investigated. The device itself is closely connected with the
intonation pattern of the utterance. In conversation any word or phrase or even
sentence may be made more conspicuous by mean of intonation. Therefore
precision in the syntactical structure of the sentence is not so necessary from
the communicative point of view. But it becomes vitally important in writing.1
Here precision of syntactical relations is the only way to make the utterance
fully communicative. Therefore when the syntactical relations become obscure,
each member of the sentence that seem to be dangling becomes logically
significant.
A variant of detached construction is p a r e n t h e s i
s.
"Parenthesis is a qualifying, explanatory nr appositive
word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other sequence witch interrupts a syntactic
construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic
intonation and indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes.
In fact, parenthesis
sometimes embodies a considerable volume of predicativeness, thus giving the
utterance an additional nuance of meaning or a tinge of emotional colouring.
§ 2. Parallel constructions and their features
Parallel construction is a device which may be encountered not so much in the
sentence as in the macro-structures dealt with earlier, viz. the SPU and
the paragraph. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical,
or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a
sentence in close succession, as in:
"There were, ..., real silver spoons to stir the lea
with, and real
china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the
cakes
and toast in". (Dickens)
Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of
words (lexical repetition) and conjunctions and prepositions (polysyndeton).
Pure parallel construction, however, does not depend on any other kind of
repetition but the repetition of the syntactical design of the
sentence,-Parallel constructions may be partial or complete. Partial parallel
arrangement is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses,
as in:
"It is the mob that labour in your fields and serve in your
houses – that man your navy and recruit your army, - that have enabled you to
defy all the world, and can also defy you when neglect and calamity have driven
them to despair." (Byron)
The attributive clauses here all begirt with the subordinate
conjunction that which is followed by a verb in the same form, except
the last (have enabled). The verbs, however, are followed -either by
adverbial modifiers of place (in your fields, in your houses) or by
direct objects (your navy, your army). The third attributive clause is
not built on the pattern of the first two, although it preserves the parallel
structure in general (that-f-verb-predicate-f-object), while the fourth has
broken away entirely.
Complete parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains
the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences,
as in:
'The seeds ye sow — another reaps,
The robes ye weave—another wears,
The arms ye forge—another bears." (P. B. Shelley)
Parallel construction is most frequently u.-ed in
enumeration, antithesis and in climax, thus consolidating the general effect
achieved by these stylistic devices.
Parallel construction is
used in different styles of writing with slightly different functions. When
used in the matter-of-fact styles, it carries, in the main, the idea of
semantic equality of the parts, as in scientific prose, where the logical
principle of arranging ideas predominates. In the belles-lettres style
parallel construction carries an emotive function. That is why it is mainly
used as a technical means in building up other stylistic devices, thus securing
their unity.
In the following example parallelism backs up repetition,
alliteration and antithesis, making the whole sentence almost epigrammatic.
"And so, from hour to hour, we ripe and ripe. And then, from hour to hour,
we rot and rot." (Shakespeare)
In the example below, parallel construction backs up the
rhetorical address and rhetorical questions. The emotional aspect is also enforced
by the interjection 'Heaven!'
"Hear me, my mother Earth! behold it, Heaven!—
Have I not had to wrestle with my lot?
Have 1 not suffered things to be forgiven?
Have 1 not had my brain seared, my heart riven,
Hopes, sapped, name blighted, Life's life lied away?"
(Byron)
In some cases parallelism emphasizes' the similarity and
equates the significance of the parts, as, for example:
"Our senses perceive no extremes. Too much sound deafens
us: too much light dazzles us; too great distance or proximity hinders our
view."
In other cases parallel construction emphasizes diversity and
contrast of ideas. (See (he example on p. 223 from the "Tale of two
Cities" by Dickens).
As a final remark it must be stated that the device of parallelism
always generates rhythm, inasmuch as similar syntactical structure repeat in
close succession. Hence it is natural that parallel construction should very
frequently be used in poetical structures. Alternation of similar units being
the basic principle of verse, similarity in longer units—i.e. in the stanza, is
to be expected.
§ 3. Structural-functional features
of Chiasmus. Reversed Parallel Construction
C h i a s m u s belongs to the group) of stylistic devices based on the
repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and
phrases. The structure of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence
may be described as reversed parallel construction, the word-order of one of
the sentences being inverted as compared with that of the other, as in:
"Ai high as we have mounted in delight
In our dejection do we sink as low." (Wordsworth)
"Down dropped the breeze,
The sails dropped down." (Coleridge)
Chiasmus is sometimes achieved by a sudden change from active
voice to passive or vice versa, for example:
"The register of his
burial was signed by the clergyman, the clerk, the undertaker and the
chief mourner. Scrooge signed it. (Dickens)
This device is effective in that it helps to lay stress on
the second part of the utterance, which is opposite in structure, as 'in our
dejection’: 'Scrooge signed if. This is due to the sudden change in the
structure which by its very unexpectedness linguistically requires a slight
pause before it.
As is seen from the examples above, chiasmus can appear only
when there are two successive sentences or coordinate parts of a sentence. So
distribution, here close succession, is the factor which predetermines the
birth of the device.
There are different variants of the structural design of
chiasmus. The first example given shows chiasmus appearing in a complex
sentence where the second part has an opposite arrangement. The second example
demonstrates chiasmus in a sentence expressing semantically the relation of
cause and effect. Structurally, however, the two parts are presented -as
independent sentences, and it is the chiasmatic structure which supports the
idea of subordination. The third example is composed of two independent
sentences and the chiasmus serves to increase the effect of climax. Here is
another example of chiasmus where two parallel constructions are followed by a
reversed parallel construction linked lo the former by the conjunction and:
'"The night winds sigh, the breakers roar.
And shrieks the wild sea-mew." (Byron)
It must be remembered that chiasmus is a syntactical, not a
lexical device, i.e. it is only the arrangement of the parts of the utterance
which constitutes this stylistic device, in the famous epigram by Byron:
"In the days of old men made the manners:
Manners now make men."
there is no inversion, but a lexical device. Both parts of
the parallel construction have the same, the normal word-order. However, the
witty arrangement of the words has given the utterance an epigrammatic
character. Tins device may be classed as lexical chiasmus or chismatic
repetition. Byron particularly favoured it. Here are some other examples:
"His jokes were sermons, and his
sermons jokes.”
“ ‘Tis strange, - but true; for truth is
always strange.”
“But Tom’s no more – and so no more of Tom.”
“True, ‘tis a pity – pity ‘tis, ‘tis true.”
“Men are the sport of circumstances, when
The circumstances seem the sport of men.”
“Tis a pity though, in this sublime world that
Pleasure’s a sin, and sometimes sin’s a pleasure.”
Note the difference in meaning of the repeated words on which
the epigrammatic effect rests: 'strange-strange', 'no more—no more', `jokes—jokes.'
Syntactical chiasmus is sometimes used to break the monotony
of parallel constructions. But whatever the purpose of chiasmus, it will always
bring in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis on some portion of
the second part.
The stylistic effect of this construction has been so far
little investigated. But even casual observation wilt show that chiasmus
should be perceived as a complete unit. One cannot help noticing that the first
part in chiasmus is somewhat incomplete, it calls for continuation, and the
anticipation is rewarded by the second part of the construction, which is, as
it were, the completion of the idea.
Like parallel
construction, chiasmus contributes to the rhythmical quality of the utterance,
and the pause caused by the change in the syntactical pattern may be linked to
a caesura in prosody.
As can be seen from this
short analysis of chiasmus, it has developed, like all stylistic devices,
within the framework of the literary form of the language. However, its
prototype may be found in the norms of expressions of the spoken language, as
in the emphatic:
‘He was a brave man, was
John.’
It has already been pointed out that repetition is an
expressive means of language; used when the speaker is under the stress of
strong emotion. It shows the state of mind of the speaker, as in the following
passage from Galsworthy:
"Stop!"—she cried, "Don't tell me! I don't
want to hear;
I don't want to hear what you've come for. / don't want to hear."
The repetition of "I don't want to hear’. is not a
stylistic device; it is a means by which the excited state of mind of the
speaker is shown. This state of mind always; manifests itself through
intonation, which is suggested here by the words "she cried'. In the
written language, before direct speech is introduced one can always find words
indicating the intonation, as sobbed, shrieked, passionately, etc. J.
Vandryes writes:
"Repetition is also one of the devices having
its origin in the emotive language. Repetition when applied to the logical
language becomes simply an instrument of grammar. Its origin is to be seen in
the excitement accompanying the expression of a feeling being brought to its
highest tension." 1
When used as a device, repetition acquires quite different
functions. It does not aim at making a direct emotional impact. On the contrary,
the stylistic device of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an emphasis necessary
to fix the attention of the reader
on the key-word of the utterance. For example:
"For that was it! Ignorant
of the long and stealthy march of passion, and of the state to which it
had reduced Fleur; ignorant of how Soames had watched her, ignorant of
Fleur's reckless desperation...— ignorant of all this, everybody felt
aggrieved.”
(Galsworthy)
Repetition is classified according to compositional patterns.
If the repeated word (or phrase) comes at the beginning of two or more consecutive
sentences, clauses or phrases, we have anaphora, as in the example
above, (f the repeated unit is placed at the end of consecutive sentences,
clauses or phrases, we have the type of repetition called epiphora, as
in:
“I am exactly the man to be placed in a superior in
such a case that. I am above the rest of mankind, in such a case as that.
I can act with philosophy in such a case that.
(Dickens)
Here the repetition has a slightly different
function: it becomes a background against which the statements preceding the
repeated unit are made to stand out more conspicuously. This may be called the
background function. It must be observed, however, that the logical
function of the repetition, to give emphasis, dot- not fade when it assumes the
background function. This is an additional function.
Repetition may also be arranged in the form of a
frame: the initial parts of a syntactical unit, in most cases of a paragraph,
are repeated at the end of it, as in:
"Poor doll's dressmaker! How often so dragged down
by hands that should have raised her up; how often so misdirected when losing
her way on the eternal road and asking guidance. Poor, little doll's
dressmaker". (Dickens)
This compositional pattern of repetition is
called-: framing. The semantic nuances of different compositional
structures of repetition have been little looked into. But even a superfic'^1
examination will show that framing, for example, makes the whole ..Iterance
more compact and more complete. Framing is most effective in singling out
paragraphs.
Among other compositional models of repetition is
linking or reduplication (also known as anadiplosis). The
structure of this device is the following: the last word or phrase of one part
of an utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next part, thus hooking the
two parts together. The writer, instead of moving on, seems to double back on
his tracks and pick up his last word.
"Freeman and slave ... carried on an
uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended,
either time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at
large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.”
Any repetition of a unit of language will
inevitably cause some slight modification of meaning, a modification suggested
by a noticeable change in the intonation with which the repeated wore is
pronounced.
Sometimes a writer may use the linking device
several times in one utterance, for example:
“A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick’s face: the
smile extended into a laugh: the laugh into a roar, and the'
roar became general." (Dickens)
"For glances beget ogles, ogles 'sighs,
sighs wishes, wishes words, and words a letter." (Byron)
This compositional pattern of repetition is also
called chain-repetition.
What are the most obvious stylistic functions of
repetition?
The first, the primary one, is. to intensify the
utterance. Intensification is the direct outcome of the use of the expressive
means employed in ordinary intercourse; but when used in other compositional
patterns, the immediate emotional charge is greatly suppressed and is replaced
by a purely aesthetic aim, as in the following example:
THE ROVER
A weary lot is thine, fair maid.
A weary lot is thine!
To pull the thorn thy brow to braid',
And press the rue for wine.
A lightsome eye, a soldier's mien
A feather of the blue,
A doublet of the Lincoln green-
No more of me you knew
My "Love'
No more of me you knew. (Walter Scott)
The repetition of the whole line in its full form
requires interpretation. Superlinear analysis based on associations aroused by
the sense of the whole poem suggests that this repetition expresses the regret
of the Rover for his Lo\re's unhappy lot. Compare also the
repetition in the line of Thomas Moore's:
"Those evening bells! Those evening
bells!"
Meditation, sadness, reminiscence and other
psychological and emotional states of mind are suggested by the repetition of
the phrase with the intensifier 'those'.
The distributional model of repetition, the aim
of which is intensification, is simple: it is immediate succession of the parts
repeated.
Repetition may also stress monotony of action, it
may suggest fatigue, or despair, or hopelessness, or doom, as in:
“What has my life been? Fag and grind, fag and
grind. Turn the wheel, turn the wheel.” (Dickens)
Here the rhythm of the repeated parts makes the
monotony and hopelessness of the speaker’s life still more keenly felt.
This function of repetition is to be observed in
Thomas Hood’s poem “The song of the shirt” where different forms of repetition
are employed.
“Work—work—work!
Till the brain begins to swim!
Work—work— work
Till the eyes are heavy and dim!
Seam, and gusset, and
band,
Band, and gusset and
seam,—
Till over the buttons I fall asleep,
And sew them on in a dream."
Of course, the main idea, that of long and exhausting
work, is expressed by lexical means: work 'till the brain begins to swim' and
'the eyes are heavy and dim',, till, finally, 'I fall asleep." But the
repetition here strongly enforces this idea and, moreover, brings in additional
nuances of meaning.
In grammars it is pointed out that the-
repetition of words connected by the conjunction and will express
reiteration or frequentative action. For example:
"Fedgeby knocked and rung, and
Fledgeby rang, and knocked, but no one came."
There are phrases containing repetition which
have become lexical units of the English language, as on and on, aver and over,
again and again and others. They all express repetition or continuity of
the action, as in:
"He played the tune over
and over again."
Sometimes this shade of meaning is backed up by
meaningful words, as in:
I sat desperately, working and working.
They talked and talked all night.
The telephone rang and rang but no one
answered.
The idea of continuity is expressed here not only
by the repetition but also by modifiers such as ‘all night'.
Background repetition, which we have already
pointed out, is sometimes used to stress the ordinarily unstressed elements of
the utterance. Here is a good example:
"I am attached to you. But I can't consent
and won't consent
and I never did consent and I
never will consent to be lost in you."
(Dickens)
The emphatic element in this utterance is not the
repeated word 'consent' but the modal words 'can't' 'won't' 'will', and also
the emphatic 'did'. Thus the repetition here loses its main function and only
serves as a means by which other elements are made to stand out clearly. It is
worthy of note that in this sentence very strong stress falls on the modal
verbs and 'did' but not on the repeated 'consent' as is usually the case with
the stylistic device.
Like many stylistic devices, repetition is polyfunctional.
The functions enumerated do not cover all its varieties. One of those already
mentioned, the rhythmical function, must not be under estimated when studying
the effects produced by repetition. Most of the samples given above give rhythm
to the utterance! In fact, any repetition enhances the rhythmical aspect of the
utterance.
There is a variety of repetition which we shall
call "root-repetition", as in:
"To live
again in the youth of the young." (Galsworthy)
or,
"He loves a dodge for its own sake;
being...— the dodgerest of all the dodgers." (Dickens)
or, "Schemmer, Karl Schemmer, was a brute,
a brutish brute."- (London)
In root-repetition it is not the same words that
are repeated hut the same root. Consequently we are faced with different words
having different meanings (youth: young; brutish: brute), but the shades
of meaning are perfectly clear.
Another variety of repetition may be called synonymical
repetition. This is the repetition of the same idea by using synonymous
words and phrases which by adding a slightly different nuance of meaning
intensify the impact of the utterance, as in
"...are there not capital punishments sufficient
in your statutes?
Is there not blood enough upon your penal
code?" (Byron)
Here the meaning of the words 'capital
punishments' and 'statutes' is repeated in the next sentence by the contextual
synonyms 'blood' and 'penal code'.
Here is another example from Keats' sonnet
"The Grasshopper and the Cricket-"
"The poetry of earth is never dead...
The poetry of earth is ceasing never..."
There are two terms frequently used to show the
negative attitude of the critic to all kinds of synonymical repetitions. These
are pleonasm and tautology. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary
defines pleonasm as "the use of more words in a sentence than are
necessary to express the meaning; redundancy of expression." Tautology is
defined as "the repetition of the same statement; the repetition
(especially in the immediate context) of the same word or phrase or of the same
idea or statement in other words; usually as a fault of style."
Here are two examples generally given as
illustrations:
"It was a clear starry night, and not a
cloud was to be seen." "He was the only survivor; no one else
was saved."
It is not
necessary to distinguish between these two terms, the distinction being very
fine. Any repetition may be found faulty if it is not motivated by the
aesthetic purport of the writer. On the other hand, any seemingly unnecessary
repetition of words or of ideas expressed in different words may be justified
by the aim of the communication.
For example, “The daylight is fading, the sun is
setting, and night is coming on” as given in a textbook of English composition
is regarded as tautological, whereas the same sentence may serve as an artistic
example depicting the approach of night.
A certain Russian literary critic has wittily
called pleonasm "stylistic elephantiasis," a disease in which the
expression of the idea swells up and loses its force. Pleonasm may also be
called "the art of wordy silence."
Both pleonasm and tautology-may be acceptable in
oratory inasmuch as they help the audience to grasp the meaning of the
utterance. In this case, however, the repetition of ideas is not considered a
fault although it- may have no aesthetic function.
§ 4. Enumeration as a functional equivalent of
Parallel constructions.
Enumeration is a stylistic device by
which separate thing objects, phenomena, properties, actions are named one by
one so that they produce a chain, the links of which, being syntactically in
the same position (homogeneous parts of speech), are forced to display some
kind f semantic homogeneity, remote though it may same position (homogeneous
parts of speech), are forced to display some kind of semantic homogeneity,
remote though it may seem.
Most of our notions are associated with other
notions due to some kind of relation between them: dependence, cause and
result, likeness, dissimilarity, sequence, experience (personal and/or social),
proximity, etc.
In fact, it is the associations plus social
experience that have resulted in the formation of what is known as "semantic
fields." Enumeration, SD , may be conventionally called a sporadic
semantic field, in as their manifestation as semantic fields do. The grouping
of sometimes absolutely heterogeneous notions occurs only in isolated instances
to meet some peculiar purport of the writer.
Let us examine the following cases of
enumeration:
"There Harold gazes on a work divine,
A blending of all beauties; streams and dells,
Fruit, foliage, crag, wood, cornfield, mountain,
vine
And chief less castles breathing stern farewells
From grey but leafy walls, where Ruin greenly
dwells." (Byron)
There is hardly anything in this enumeration that
could be regarded as making some extra impact on the reader. Each word is
closely associated semantically with the following and preceding words in the
enumeration, and the effect is what the reader associates with natural scenery.
The utterance is perfectly coherent and there is no halt in the natural flow of
the communication. In other words, there is nothing specially to arrest the
reader's attention; no effort is required to decipher the message: it yields itself
easily to immediate perception.
That is not the case in the following passage:
"Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole
administrator, his sole as-sign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole
friend and his sole mourner.”
(Dickens)
The enumeration here is heterogeneous; the
legal terms placed in a string with such words as 'friend' and 'mourner' result
in a kind of clash, a thing typical of any stylistic device. Here there is a
clash between terminological vocabulary and common neutral words. In addition
there is a clash of concepts: 'friend' and 'mourner' by force of enumeration
are equal in significance to the business office of 'executor',
'administrator', etc. and also to that of ‘legatee'.
Enumeration is frequently used as a device to
depict scenery through a tourist's eyes, as in Galsworthy's "To Let":
"Fleur's wisdom in refusing to write to him
was profound for tie reached each new place entirely without hope or fever, and
could concentrate immediate attention on the donkeys and tumbling
bells, the priests, patios, beggars, children, crowing cocks, sombreros,
cactus-hedges, old high white villages, goats, olive-trees, greening
plains, singing birds in tiny cages, watersellers, sunsets, melons,
mules, great churches, pictures, and swimming grey-brown
mountains of a fascinating land."
The enumeration here is worth analysing. The
various elements of this enumeration can be approximately grouped in semantic
fields:
1) donkeys, mules, crowing cocks, goats, singing
birds;
2) priests, beggars, children, watersellers;
3) villages, patios, cactus-hedges, churches,
tumbling bells, sombreros, pictures;
4) sunsets, swimming grey-brown mountains,
greening plains, olive-trees, melons.
Galsworthy found it necessary to arrange them not
according to logical semantic centers, but in some other order; in one which,
apparently, would suggest the rapidly changing impressions of a tourist.
Enumeration of this kind assumes a stylistic function and may therefore be
regarded as a stylistic device, inasmuch as the objects in the enumeration are
not distributed in logical order and therefore become striking.
This heterogeneous enumeration gives one an
insight into the mind of the observer, into his love of the exotic, into the
great variety of miscellaneous objects which caught his eye, it gives an idea
of the progress of his travels and the most striking features of the land of
Spain as seen by one who is in love with the country. The parts of the
enumeration may be likened to the strokes of a painter's brush who by an
inimitable choice of colours presents to our eyes an unforgettable image of the
life and scenery of Spain. The passage itself can be likened to a picture drawn
for you while you wait.
Here is another example of heterogeneous
enumeration:
"The
principal production of these towns... appears to be soldiers, sailors,
Jews, chalk, shrimps, officers and dock-yard men." (Dickens, "Pickwick
Papers")
Suspense is a compositional device which consists in
arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important,
descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea
being withheld till the end of the sentence. Thus the reader's attention is
held and his interest kept up, for example:
"Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend
M. was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand
ages ate their meat raw." (Charles Lamb)
Sentence; of this type are called periodic
sentences, or periods. Their function is to create suspense, to keep
the reader in a stale of uncertainty and expectation.
Here is a good example of the piling up of
details so as to create a state of suspense in the listeners:
"But suppose it passed; suppose one of
these men, as I have seen them,—meagre with famine, sullen with despair,
careless of a life which your Lordships are perhaps about to value at something
less than the price of a stocking-frame:—suppose this man surrounded by
the children for whom he is unable to procure bread at the hazard of his
existence, about to be torn for ever from a family which he lately supported in
peaceful industry, and which it is not his fault that he can no longer so
support;—suppose this man, and there are ten thousand such from whom
you may select your victims, dragged into court, to be tried for this
new offence, by this new law; still there are two things wanting to
convict and condemn him; and these are, in my opinion,—twelve butchers
[or a jury, and a Jeffreys for a judge!" (Byron)
Here the subject of the subordinate clause of
concession ('one of these men") is repeated twice ("this man’, 'this
man'), each time followed by a number of subordinate parts, before the
predicate ('dragged') is reached. All this is drawn together in the principal
clause ('there are two things wanting...’), which was expected and prepared for
by the logically incomplete preceding statements. But the suspense is not yet
broken: what these two things are, is still withheld until the orator comes to
the words 'and these are, in my opinion.'
Suspense and climax sometimes go together. In
this case all the information contained in the series of statement-clauses
preceding the solution-statement are arranged in the order of gradation, as in
the example above from Byron's maiden speech in the House of Lords.
The device of suspense is especially favoured by
orators. This is apparently due to the strong influence of intonation which
helps to create the desired atmosphere of expectation and emotional tension
which goes with it.
That unless it is conspicuously marked in the
utterance, effect might be lost.
It must be remembered, however, that so strong is
the impact of the various stylistic devices, that they draw into their orbit
stylistic elements not specified as integral parts of the device. As we have
pointed out, this is often the case with the epithet. The same concerns antithesis.
Sometimes it is difficult to single out the elements which distinguish it from
logical opposition.
Thus in Dickens's "A Tale of Two
Cities" the first paragraph is practically built on opposing pairs.
“It was the best of times, it was the worst
of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness,
it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, if
was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was
the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we
had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all
going direct to Heaven, we are all going direct the other
way..." (Dickens)
The structural pattern of the utterance, the
pairs of objective antonyms as well as of those on which antonymical meanings are
imposed by the force of analogy makes the whole paragraph stylistically significant,
and the general device which makes it so is antithesis.
This device is often signaled by the introductory
connective but, as in:
"The cold in clime are cold in blood
Their love can scarce deserve the name;
But mine was like a lava flood.
That boils in Etna's breast of flame."
(Byron)
When but is used as a signal of
antithesis, the other structural signal, the parallel arrangement, may not be
evident. It may be unnecessary, as in the example above.
Antithesis is
a device bordering between stylistics and logic. The extremes are easily
discernible but most of the cases are intermediate. However, it is essential to
distinguish between antithesis and what is termed contrast. Contrast is
a literary (not a linguistic) device based on logical opposition between the
phenomena set one against another.
§ 5.
Features of dealing with Parallel structures in forming a text.
Good writers express co-ordinate ideas in similar
form.
This principle, that of parallel construction,
requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly
similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the
likeness of content and function.
The unskilful writer often violates this
principle, from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of
his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize
it he may have need to vary its form. But apart from this, he should follow the
principle of parallel construction.
awardly
|
better
|
Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now
the laboratory method is employed.
|
Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is
taught by the laboratory; method.
|
The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is
undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of
expression and hold to it.
|
The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made
his choice and abided by it.
|
By this principle, an article or a preposition
applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first
term or else be repeated before each term.
|
Better
|
The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese
|
The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the
Portuguese
|
In spring, summer, or in winter
|
In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in
winter)
|
Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not
only, but also; either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be
followed by the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule can
be corrected by rearranging the sentence.
|
Better
|
It was both a long ceremony and very tedious.
|
The ceremony was both long and tedious.
|
A time not for words, but action
|
A time not for words, but for action
|
Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will'
|
You must either grant his request or incur his-ill will.
|
My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second,
that it is unconstitutional.
|
My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second,
that it is unconstitutional.
|
CHAPTER II
PROBLEMS OF
TRANSLATING THE PARALLEL CONSTRUCTIONS FROM ENGLISH INTO UZBEK
§ 1. Equivalence in the translations
of parallel construction
This section of the Graduation Qualification
paper deals with the problems of translation equivalence which is defined as a
measure of semantic similarity between ST and IT. If we compare a number of TTs
with their STs we shall discover that the degree of semantic similarity between
the two texts involved in the translating process may vary. In other words the
equivalence between ST and TT may be based on the reproduction of different
parts of the ST contents. Accordingly, several types of translation equivalence
can be distinguished.
Let us first of all single out translations in
which the degree of semantic similarity with ST seems to be the lowest. This
type of equivalence can be illustrated by the following examples (cited from
the published translations):
(1) Maybe there is some chemistry between us that
doesn't mix.
Юлдузимиз юлдузимизга тўғри келмайди.
(2) A rolling stone gathers no moss.
(3) That's a pretty thing to say. Уялмасдан шундай дединг-а!
Here we cannot discover any common seems or
invariant structures in the original and its translation. An absolute dissimilarity
of language units is accompanied by the absence of obvious logical link between
the two messages which could lead to the conclusion that they arc "about
the same thing", Le. that they describe one and the same situation. Yet,
it is evident that the two sentences have something in common as to their
meaning. This common part of their contents is obviously of great importance,
since it is enough to ensure an adequate communication.
Moreover, it comprises the information which must
be preserved by all means even though the greater part of the contents of the
original is lost in the translation.
From the
examples we can see that common to the original and its translation in each
case is only the general intent of the message, the implied or figurative sense,
in other words, the conclusions the Receptor can draw from the total contents
or the associations they can evoke in him, or the special emphasis on some
aspect of communication. In plain English, the translation does not convey
either "what the original text is about", or what is said in it"
or "how it is said", but only "what it is said for", i.e.
what the Source meant, what the aim of the message is. This part of the
contents which contains information about the general intent of the message,
its orientation towards a certain communicative effect can be called "the
purport of communication". Thus we can deduce that in the first type of equivalence it is
only the purport of communication that is retained in translation.
The second group of translations can be
illustrated by the following examples:
He answered the telephone
У телефонга жавоб берди.
You see one bear, you have seen them all.
It was late in the day.
Кеч кираётганди.
This group of examples is similar to the first
one, as the equivalence of translations here does not involve any parallelism
of lexical or structural units. Most of the words or syntactical structures of
the original have no direct correspondences in the translation. At the same
time it is obvious that there is a greater proximity of contents than in the
preceding group. Besides the purport of communication there is some additional
information contained in the original that is retained. This fact can be easily
proved if we compare the examples of the two groups.
Consider, for instance, the translations:
(1) Maybe there is some chemistry between us that
doesn't mix.
Юлдузимиз юлдузимизга тўғри
келмайди.
(2) Не answered the telephone. У телефонга жавоб берди.
In (I) the things referred to are different, so
that there is hardly any logical connection between the two statements. The
similarity of the original and the translation is restricted to the fact that
in both cases we can draw identical conclusions about the speaker's sentiments:
there is no love lost between him and another person.
In (2) the
incomparable language units in the original and in the translation describe, in
fact, the same action, refer to identical reality, as a telephone call cannot
be answered unless one picks up the receiver. Both texts give different
information about the same, or, as one sometimes says, they express the same
idea "using different words". It is the type of equivalence that can
be well explained in terms of the situational theory. We may presume that such
phrases describe identical situations but each is presented in a different way.
Thus in this group of translations the equivalence implies retention of two
types of information contained in the original — the purport of communication
and the indication of the situation. Since in each of the two texts the
situation is described in a different way, the common feature is not the method
of description but the reference to the situation, the possibility of
identifying the situation, no matter how it is described in the text. The
information which characterized the second type of equivalence can, therefore, be designated as
"identification of the situation".
In the next group of translations the part of the
contents which is to be retained is still larger. This type of equivalence can
be exemplified as follows:
Scrubbing makes me bad — tempered.
Пол ювиш деса кўнглим айнийди.
London saw a cold winter last year.
Ўтган йили Лондонда қиш совуқ келди.
You are not serious?
Хазиллашмаяпсизми?
In this case the translation retains the two
preceding informative complexes as well as the method of describing the
situation. In other words, it contains the same general notions as the
original. This means that the translation is a semantic paraphrase of the
original, preserving its basic semes and allowing their free reshuffle in the
sentence. Thus we are faced with a situation that can be explained in terms of
the semantic theory. The common semes are easily discovered in the comparative
analysis of the translations of this group. Consider the first of the examples
cited. Both in the translation and in the original the situation is described
as a "cause-effect" event with a different pattern of identical
semes. In the original: A (scrubbing) causes В (I) to have С (temper) characterized
by the property D (bad). In the translation: С (temper) belonging to В (I) acquires the
property D (bad) because of A (scrubbing).
The use of the identical notions in the two texts
means that the basic structure of the messages they convey remains intact. If
in the previous types of equivalence the translation gave the information of
"what the original message is for" and "what it is about",
here it also indicates "what is said in the original", i.e. what
aspect of the described situation is mentioned in the communication.
We can now say that the third type of equivalence
exemplified by the translations of the third group implies retention in the
translation of the three parts of the original contents which we have
conventionally designated as the purport of communication, the identification
of the situation and the method of its description.
The fourth group of translations can be
illustrated by the following samples:
He was never tired of old songs.
Кўҳна қўшиқлар унинг ҳеч қачон жонига тегмас эди.
I don't see that I need to convince you.
Сизга
буни исботлашга зарурият сезмаяпман.
In this group the semantic similarity of the
previous types of equivalence is reinforced by the invariant meaning of the
syntactic structures in the original and the translation. In such translations
the syntactic structures can be regarded as derived from those in the original
through direct or backward transformations. This includes cases when the
translation makes use of similar or parallel structures. An important feature
of this and the subsequent type of equivalence is that they imply the retention
of the linguistic meaning, i.e. the information fixed in the substantial or
structural elements of language as their plane of content. We can say that here
the translation conveys not only the "what for", the "what
about" and the "what*' of the original but also something of the
"how- it-is— said in the original". The meaning of language units is
an important part of the overall contents of the text and the translator strives
to preserve it in his translation as best he can.
Thus, the fourth type of equivalence presupposes
retention in the translation of the four meaningful components of the original:
the purport of communication, the identification of the situation, the method
of its description, and the invariant meaning of the syntactic structures.
Last but not least, comes the fifth group of
translations that can be discovered when we analyze their relationships with
the respective originals. Here we find the maximum possible semantic similarity
between texts in different languages. These translations try to retain the
meaning of all the words used in the original text. The examples cited below
illustrate this considerable semantic proximity of the correlated words in the
two sentences:
I saw him at the theatre.
Мен уни театрда кўрдим.
The house was sold for 10 thousand dollars.
Уq 10 минг долларга сотилди.
The
Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members.
Ташкилот барча Аъзоларнинг мустақил тенглигига асосланган.
Here we can
observe the equivalence of semes which make up the meaning of correlated words
in the original text and the translation; parallelism of syntactic structures
implying the maximum invariance of their meanings; the similarity of the
notional categories which determine the method of describing the situation; the
identity of the situations; the identical functional aim of the utterance or
the purport of communication. The relative identity of the contents of the two
texts depends in this case on the extent to which various components of the
word meaning can be rendered in translation without detriment to the retention
of the rest of the information contained in the original.
Now we can sum up our findings. We have
discovered that there are five different types of semantic relationships
between equivalent phrases (texts) in two languages. Thus all translations can
be classified into five types of equivalence which differ as to the volume and
character of the information retained in each. Each subsequent type of
equivalence retains the part of the original contents which includes the
information preserved in the previous types.
Every translation can be regarded as belonging to
a certain type of equivalence. Since each subsequent type implies a higher
degree of semantic similarity we can say that every translation is made at a
certain level of equivalence.
Each level of equivalence is characterized by the
part of information the retention of which distinguishes it from the previous
level. The list of levels, therefore, includes: 1) the level of the purport of
communication; 2) the level of (the identification of) the situation; 3) the
level of the method of description (of the situation); 4) the level of
syntactic meanings; 5) the level of word semantics.
It is worth
noting that the information characterizing different levels is inherent to any
unit of speech. Indeed, a unit of speech always has some communicative intent,
denotes a certain situation, possesses a certain notional structure, and is
produced as a syntactically patterned string of words. Thus, a translation
event is accomplished at a definite level of equivalence. It should be
emphasized that the level hierarchy does not imply the idea of approbation or
disapprobation. A translation can be good at any level of equivalence.
§ 2. Types of equivalents in the translation of parallel
constructions
The structural similarity of ST and TT implies
that relationships of equivalence are established between correlated units in
the two texts. TL units in TT that are used to render the meaning of the
respective SL units in ST can be said to substitute for the latter as their
functional equivalents (or correspondences) Since language units are often used
in their accepted meanings many SL units have regular equivalents in TL which
are used in numerous TT as substitutes to those units. Some of the SL units
have permanent equivalents in TL, that is to say, there is a one-to-one
correspondence between such units and their equivalents. Thus "London" is always rendered into Uzbek as «Лондон», "a machine-gun" as «пулемет» and
"hydrogen" as «водород». As a rule this type of correspondence is found
with words of specific character, such as scientific and technical terms,
proper or geographical names and similar words whose meaning is more or less
independent of the particular contextual situation.
Other SL units may have several equivalents each.
Such one-to-many correspondence between SL and TL units is characteristic of
most regular equivalents. The existence of a number of non-permanent (or
variable) equivalents to a SL units implies the necessity of selecting one of
them in each particular case, taking into account the way the unit is used in
ST and the points of difference between the semantics of its equivalents in TL.
Depending on the type of the language units
involved regular equivalents can be classified as lexical, phraseological or
grammatical. Coordinated words in two languages may correspond to each other in
one or several components of their semantic structures, while not fully
identical in their semantics. The choice of the equivalent will depend on the
relative importance of a particular semantic element in the act of
communication. For instance, the English word "ambitious" may denote
either praiseworthy or inordinate desires. Its translation will depend on which
of these aspects comes to the fore. Thus "the ambitious plans of the
would-be world conquerors" will be translated as «бутун дунё хўжайинлигига даъвогарларнинг ҳаққоний режалари», while "the
ambitious goals set by the United Nations" will give «БМТ олдига қўйган юксак мақсадлар» in the Uzbek
translation.
A variety of
equivalents may also result from a more detailed description of the same object
in TL. The English word "attitude", for instance, is translated as «муносабат, позиция, сиёсат» depending on the
variant the Uzbek language prefers in a particular situation. Here the choice
between equivalents is determined by TL factors. Even if a SL unit has a regular equivalent
in TL, this equivalent cannot be used in TT whenever the unit is found in ST.
An equivalent is but a potential substitute, for the translator's choice is, to
a large extent, dependent on the context in which the SL unit is placed in ST.
There are two types of context: linguistic and situational. The linguistic
context is made up by the other SL units in ST while the situational context
includes the temporal, special and other circumstances under which ST was
produced as well as all facts which the receptor is expected to know so that he
could adequately interpret the message. It is only by assessing the meanings of
SL units in ST against the linguistic and situational contexts that the
translator can discover what they mean in the particular case and what
equivalents should be chosen as their substitutes. Thus in the following
sentences the linguistic context will enable the translator to make a correct
choice among the Uzbek equivalents to the English noun "attitude":
(1) I don't
like your attitude to your work.
(2) There is no sign of any change in the
attitudes of the two sides.
(3) He stood there in a threatening attitude.
It is obvious that in the first sentence it
should be the Uzbek
«муносабат (ишга)», in the second sentence — «позицияси (иккала томоннинг)», and in the third
sentence - «ҳолат (хавфли)».
As often as not the correct substitute cannot be
chosen unless the jituational context is brought into play. If somebody is
referred to in ST as " an abolitionist" the choice of the substitute
will depend on the period described. In different historical periods
abolitionists were people who sought the abolition of slavery, prohibition laws
or death penalty.
Accordingly, in the Uzbek translation the person
will be described as «аболиционист», ««ичкиликка қарши қонун» тарафдори, or «ўлим ҳукмини бекор қилиш тарафдори».
The fact that a SL unit has a number of regular
equivalents does not necessarily mean that one of them will be used in each
particular translation.
True, in many cases the translator's skill is
well demonstrated in his ability to make a good choice among such equivalents.
But not infrequently the context does not allow the translator to employ any of
the regular equivalents to the given SL unit. Then the translator has to look
for an ad hoc way of translation which will successfully render the meaning of
the unit in this particular case. Such an exceptional translation of a SL unit
which suits a particular context can be described as an occasional equivalent
or a contextual substitute. It is clear, for instance, that none of the
above-mentioned regular equivalents to the English "attitude" can be
used in the translation of the following sentence:
He has a
friendly attitude towards all.
An occasional equivalent may be found through a
change of the part of speech:
У барчага дўстларча муносабатда бўлади.
The particular contextual situation may force the
translator to give up even a permanent equivalent. Geographical names have such
equivalents which are formed by imitation of the foreign name in TL. And the
name of the American town of New Haven (Conn.) is invariably rendered into
Uzbek as «Нью-ейвен».
But the sentence "I graduated from New Haven
in 1915" will be hardly translated in the regular way since the Uzbek
reader may not know that New Haven is famous for its Yale university. The
translator will rather opt for the occasional equivalent: «Мен Йель университетини 1915 йил тугатганман».
The regular equivalents are by no means
mechanical substitutes and their use or replacement by occasional equivalents
calls for a high level of the translator's skill and taste.
Other permanent equivalents, though identical in
their figurative meaning, are based on different images, that is, they have
different literal meaning.
Cf . "to get up on the wrong side of the
bed" — «чап ёни билан турмоқ», "make hay while the sun shines" —«темирни
қизиғида босмоқ”. Now an English idiom may have several
Uzbek equivalents among which the translator has to make his choice in each
particular case. For instance, the meaning of the English "Do in Rome as the Romans do" may be rendered in some contexts as «Кўрпангта қараб узат», and in other contexts
as «Ҳap ерни ўз тошу — тарозиси бор». But here, again, the translator may not infrequently prefer an
occasional equivalent which can be formed by a word-for-word reproduction of the
original unit: «Римда римликлар сингари иш тут».
The choice of
grammatical units in TT largely depends on the semantics and combinability of
its lexical elements. Therefore there are practically no permanent grammatical
equivalents. The variable equivalents in the field of grammar may be analogous
forms in TL or different forms with a similar meaning. As often as not such
equivalents are interchangeable and the translator has a free choice between
them. In the following English sentence "He was a guest of honour at a
reception given by the Soviet government" both the Russian participle «устроенном» and the attributive*
clause «который был устроен» an be substituted for the English participle "given".
And the use of occasional equivalents is here more common than in the case of
the lexical or phraseological units. We have seen that in the first three types
of equivalence no equivalents to the grammatical units are deliberately
selected in TL. Semantic dissimilarity of analogous structures in SL and TL
also result in SL structures having several equivalents in TL. For instance,
attributive groups are common both in English and in Uzbek: "a green
tree"—«яшил дарахт». But the semantic relationships between the numbers of the group
are broader in English, which often precludes a blueprint translation of the
group into Uzbek. As often as not the English attributive group is used to
convey various adverbial ideas of location, purpose, cause, etc. Consider such
groups as "Madrid trial" (location), "profits drive"
(purpose), "war suffering" (cause). Such groups may also express
various action-object relationships. Cf. labour movement" (movement
by the workers), "labour raids" (raids against the workers), and
"labour spies" (spies among the workers).
A word within an attributive group may sometimes
alter its meaning. So, "war rehabilitation" is, in fact,
rehabilitation of economy after the war, that is, "post-war
rehabilitation" and "Communist trials in USA" are "trials
of Communists" or "anti-Communist trials". As a result, many
attributive groups are polysemantic and are translated in a different way in
different contexts. "War prosperity" may mean "prosperity during
the war" or prosperity in the post-war period caused by the war". The
Berlin proposals" may imply "proposals made in Berlin" (say,
at an international conference), "proposals made by Berlin" (i.e. by
the GDR), "proposal on Berlin" (of political, economic or other
nature).
No small number of SL units have no regular
equivalents in TL. Equivalent-lacking words are often found among SL names of
specific national phenomena, such as the English words "coroner,
condominium, impeachment, baby-sitter" and the like. However, there are
quite a number of "ordinary" words for which TL may have no
equivalent lexical units: "fluid, bidder, qualifier,
conservationist", etc. Some grammar forms and categories may also be
equivalent-lacking. (Cf. the English gerund, article or absolute participle construction
which has no counterparts in Uzbek.)
The absence of regular equivalents does not imply
that the meaning of an equivalent-lacking SL unit cannot be rendered in
translation or that its translation must be less accurate. We have seen that
words with regular equivalents are not infrequently translated with the help of
contextual substitutes. Similarly, the translator, coming across an
equivalent-lacking word, resorts to occasional equivalents which can be created
in one of the following ways:
1.
Using
loan-words imitating in TL the form of the SL word or word combination, e.g.
tribalism — трайбализм, impeachment — импичмент, ackbencher - итни кейинги оёғи, brain-drain — утечка мозгов. As often as not such
occasional formations are adopted by the members of the TL community and get
the status of regular equivalents.
2. Using approximate substitutes, that is TL
words with similar meaning which is extended to convey additional information
(if necessary, with the help of fool-notes), e.g. drugstore — аптека, дорихона, afternoon – оқшом .
The Russian
«аптека» is not exactly a
drugstore where they also sell such items as magazines, soft drinks, ice-cream,
etc., but in some cases this approximate equivalent can well be used.
3. Using all kinds of lexical (semantic)
modifying the meaning of the SL word, e.g. "He died of exposure" may
be rendered into Uzbek as «У шамоллашдан ўлди» or «У офтоб уриб ўлди».
4. Using an explanation to convey the
meaning of the SL unit, e.g. landslide-сайловда кўп овоз олиб ғалаба » қилиш, brinkmanship -уруш арафасида сиёсат юритиш санъати, etc.
This method is sometimes used in conjunction with
the first one when the introduction of a loan-word is followed by a foot-note
explaining the for a more detailed discussion of the problems involved in the
translation of English attributive groups, meaning of the equivalent-lacking
word in ST. After that the translator may freely employ the newly-coined
substitute.
There are also quite a number of
equivalent-lacking idioms. Such English phraseological units as "You
cannot eat your cake and have it", "to dine with Duke Humphrey",
"to send smb. to Coventry" and many others have no regular
equivalents in Uzbek. They are translated either by reproducing their form in
TL through a word-for-word translation or by explaining the figurative meaning
of the idiom, e.g.: People who live in ;lass should not throw stones. - Ойнаванд уйда яшасанг, тош отма; to see eye-to-eye with
smb. - кўзи — кўзига тушиб туриш.
Equivalent-lacking grammatical forms give less
trouble to the translator. Here occasional substitutes can be classified under
three main headings, namely:
1. Zero translations when the meaning of the
grammatical unit is not rendered in the translation since it is practically
identical to the meaning of some other unit and can be safely left out. In the
sentence "By that time he had already left Britain" — К этому времени он уже уехал из Англии the idea of priority
expressed by the Past Perfect Tense needn't be separately reproduced in TT as
it is made superfluous by the presence of "by that time" and
"already".
2.
Approximate translations when the translator makes use of a TL form partially
equivalent to the equivalent-lacking SL unit, e.g.: 1 saw him enter the room - Мен унинг хонага кириб кетганини курдим.
The Uzbek language has no complex objects of this
type but the meaning of the object clause is a sufficient approximation
3. Transformational translation when the
translator resorts to one of the grammatical transformations, e.g.: Your
presence at the meeting is not obligatory. Nor is it desirable - Йиғинада қатнашишингиз зарур эмас, эҳгиёж ҳам йуқ (the syntactical
integration).
As has been emphasized, equivalents are not
mechanical substitutes for SL
units but
they may come handy as a starting point in search of adequate translation. The
translator will much profit if he knows many permanent equivalents, is good at
selecting among variable equivalents and resourceful at creating occasional
equivalents, taking into account all contextual factors.
§
3. Techniques of translating the English Parallel Constructions into Uzbek
The study of the linguistic machinery of
translation makes it possible to outline the main principles of the
translator's strategy.
When confronted with the text to be translated,
the translator s First concern is to understand it by assessing the meaning of
language units in the text against the contextual situation and the pertaining extra
linguistic facts. At the same time the translator must take care to avoid
"thinking into the text, i.e. adding the information which is not, in
fact, present in ST.
Let us illustrate this procedure by a few
examples. Suppose we have the following sentence: "The Union executive
committee passed a resolution advising the workers to "sit-out"
elections where neither party offers a candidate whom labor could
support." Translating this sentence the translator has to solve a number
of problems, trying to get to the meaning of some words or word combinations.
He has two main pillars to sustain his judgments: the basic meaning of the unit
and the contextual situation. Consider the phrase "to sit out the elections".
The basic meaning of "to sit out" is clearly the opposite of "to
sit in". One can obviously "sit in the house, the car, the
shade", etc. or to "sit out of them", i.e. to be or stay outside
some place or space. On the other hand, "to sit out a dance" means
not to dance, that is, not to take part in this kind of activities. True, it
often implies that you do it unwillingly, that you are just not invited to
dance. In our case the workers are recommended to sit out elections by their
own will, to show their disapproval of the candidates offered by the two
parties. We may conclude that the workers are advised not to go to the polls
or to boycott the elections.
Now what is the "Union executive
committee" that made the recommendation? Theoretically speaking, any kind
of union may have done it. But for practical purposes the translator will take
into account the following considerations. First, it is clear that it is some
kind of labor organization. Second, it is a union whose activities are directed
by an executive committee. Third, the word "union" is often used as
a short form for "trade-union" (cf. "a union card", "a
union member", etc.). All these facts fit well together, while other
possible meanings of "union" (cf. "Union Jack", "union
suit" and the like) are obviously out of place.
Such conclusions are often made by (he
translator. What are "out-of-this-world meat prices"? "Meat
prices" are prices you buy your meat at, but what is "out of this
world"? Evidently, such prices are not "in this world", i.e.
they are not found in it or not common to it. Thus the phrase implies
"uncommon prices". But the major and perhaps the only characteristics
of any prices is that they are either high or low. "Uncommon prices"
can be either uncommonly high or uncommonly low. Now if the original runs: 'The
people are worried on account of the out-of-this-world meat prices” the choice
is clear. Coming back to the linguistic form, the translator may observe that
“out of this world” is a stronger way of putt in it than is “uncommon”. It is
closer to “extraordinary”, “fantastic”, “unheard of”, etc.
Of great
importance is the translator's ability to draw a line of demarcation between
the exact information that can be really deduced from the text and the presence
of several alternatives between which he cannot choose with sufficient
certitude. Suppose a man is referred to in the original as 'Trice Stabilizer
E. Arnall". The words 'Trice Stabilizer" are obviously used here as
a sort of title. This can lead to a number of important conclusions.
"Stabilizer" is obviously not an electrical appliance but "a man
who stabilizes". Since it is not an honorary title it should refer to the
man's position or occupation. The conclusion is that the man is concerned with
the problem of price stabilization by virtue of his official duties. As these
duties are mentioned as his personal title (observe the capital letters and the
absence of the article), he cannot be an insignificant employee but is a man
of high standing. He may be even the head of an office dealing with price-stabilization
problems. But this is as far as our guesswork can go. We do not know the name
of the office (a board, a committee, an agency, etc.) or whether its head (if E. Arnall is one) was referred to as director, manager or superintendent. Therefore we
cannot use in the translation the words: “директор” etc. Nor can we give
the name of his office. Unless we can find a way of getting the required information
from some outside source, we shall have to stick to some noncommittal variant.
In our previous discussions we have noted that
the semantic analysis of the text must take into account both the immediate
surroundings, i.e. the meaning of other words and structures in the same
sentence, and the broad context which comprises the contents of the whole
original text, whether it is a small extract, an article or a large book.
The information that can be gleaned from the
original text should be supplemented by the translator's knowledge of the
actual facts of life. The words "out of this world" were translated
above as «непомерно высокие» as we know that people are not ordinarily worried by prices
being reduced.
Analyzing the contents of the original the
translator makes the assessment of the relative communicative value of
different meaningful elements. In most cases his professed aim is to achieve
the closest approximation to the original, i.e. to reproduce its contents in
all the details. As long as the linguistic or pragmatic reasons make it
impossible and the translation involves a certain loss of information, the translator
has not infrequently to choose between several evils. As often as not, one
meaningful element of the original can be retained in translation only at the
expense of omitting some other part of the contents. The translator has to
decide what bits of information he is prepared to sacrifice and what elements
of the original meaning are of greater communicative value and should be
rendered at any cost.
The choice of the dominant aspect of meaning
usually depends on the
type of the text and the prevailing pragmatic
considerations. While translating, for instance, figurative set expressions
the translator may try to preserve their basic metaphorical meaning at the
expense of other parts of the contents including the figure of speech that
makes up the metaphorical structure of the collocation. In most cases the
purport of communication is, first and foremost, to express a certain idea
while the figurative way of expressing it is a kind of embellishment, a nice
and pleasant luxury which can be dispensed with, if necessary. When "a
skeleton in the family cupboard" becomes "a shameful family
secret" in translation, there is certainly a loss in expressiveness, but
the basic sense is well preserved. The metaphorical meaning will be chosen as
the dominant part of the contents in most translations.
In a literary
text the poetic or stylistic effect is no less important than the ideas
conveyed. The same is true whenever the translator has to deal with a play on
words or a sustained metaphor. In such cases the loss of the figurative element
may make at least part of the text quite meaningless and it is often considered
as the dominant component to be preserved in translation.
By way of example let us discuss the problems
involved in the translation of a play upon words. Consider the following
sentences:
"He ... said he had come for me, and
informed me that he was a page." "Go 'long," I said, "you
ain't more than a paragraph." (M. Twain)
It is clear that the second sentence would be
meaningless but for the play upon the words "page" and
"paragraph". The same is true about its translation which will be
unintelligible unless the play on words is duly reproduced in TL. This is the
dominant goal which should be achieved at all costs even though it might
involve some inaccuracies in the translation of other elements.
This is not an easy task but ii is not
impossible, either. Here is how it was done by N. Chukovsky:
It is worthwhile to observe the method that is
used to overcome the difficulty. The equivalent for a page boy has no other
meaning (or homonym) which is associated with any part of a book or other
printed matter. So the translator introduces another word “глава" and on its basis
recreates the original play upon words. It does not matter that in doing it he
makes the boy the head of the pages which he was probably not. The accurate
information about the boy's official standing has obviously received a lower
rating in the translator's assessment than the preservation of the stylistic
effect. This inaccuracy seems to be a lesser evil, since the dominant aspect of
the original contents is duly rendered in translation.
Assessing the relative communicative value of
various elements in the original, it should be borne in mind that translations
are made at different levels of equivalence reproducing different parts of the
original contents. The identification of the situation and especially the
purport of communication are indispensable and are preserved in practically
all translations. Naturally, it is these components that usually make up the
dominant sense to be reproduced, if necessary, at the expense of the rest of
the contents.
The purport of communication and the
identification of the situation are not, as a rule, expressed by some
particular words or structures but by the whole unit of speech. Therefore it is
often the case that the general sense of the unit as a whole is of greater
communicative value than the meaning of its individual elements. The translator
is thus prepared to sacrifice the part to the whole, the meaning of an clement
to the meaning of the whole.
This predominance of the whole makes an imprint
upon some of the techniques used by translators both for understanding the
original text and for establishing 3 kind of semantic bridge to the
translation. It can be observed that the translator first tries to get the
most general idea of what is said in the original, to find out, so to speak,
"who does what and to whom", to understand the general semantic
pattern or framework of the sentence and then fill in the particular details.
The translator may first resort to the
word-for-word translation imitating the syntactic structure of the original and
using the most common substitutes of all words. The same method can be used to
facilitate understanding if the general meaning of the original text eludes
the translator.
Thus the translating may begin with an imitation
of the original structure in TL to see whether a word-for-word translation is
possible or should be replaced by a different structure. In this way the
translator decides upon the syntactic framework of his future translation. This
technique is not infrequently used as the choice of lexical units may depend,
to a large extent, on the syntactic pattern they fit into.
Let us give an illustration. Suppose the original
sentence runs as follows: 'The computer and the man-made satellite were, by
all rules of heredity, conceived in the small Northern towns of England, the seat of the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century."
The general
idea is clear. The sentence implies that the Industrial Revolution initiated
the technological progress which is today characterized by such outstanding
achievements as computers and artificial satellites. The first step will be for
the translator to try a parallel structure in Uzbek.
It appears that no matter what lexical units arc
used within the structure, the sentence will somehow imply that modern
computers actually were built, invented, or at any rate thought of, in Britain as early as in the 18th century. Now the translator's technique will be to draw up
a list of Uzbek structures used to convey the idea that something which exists
today can have its origin traced to much earlier time.
Trying to fit the variant into a meaningful whole
with the phrase "by all rules of heredity", the translator will
probably choose the expression
The choice of the structure in translation often
calls for a good deal of ingenuity and imagination on the part of the
translator. He should be able to make an accurate assessment of the semantic
possibilities of the given syntactic structure in order lo see whether the
latter can be used to convey the original meaning.
Suppose the English sentence is structured with
the help of the verb "to add", e.g.: "A new excitement was added
to the races at Epsom Downs last year." The problem is to decide whether
in Uzbek it is possible to express this idea in a similar way, that is by
saying that a feeling is added to a competition. If the translator finds it
unacceptable as being alien to the semantic structure of the Uzbek language
which seems to have less freedom in joining heterogeneous ideas within a
syntactic, structure, his second problem will be to think of the acceptable-Uzbek
way to say "the same thing". Uzbek would reject "excitement
added to the race", but it permits such structures as "the race
evoked a new excitement", or "the race was more exciting", or
"the race was watched with greater excitement", etc. Thus the
translator can make his syntactic choice and then look for appropriate
substitutes for "excitement", "race" and other lexical
units in the original.
A word of caution may be in order here. In the
practical course of translation great pains are usually taken to teach the
future translator to replace the original syntactical structures by using
appropriate transformations which produce acceptable TL structures without any
great loss of information. As a result, some translators get into the habit of
turning every original structure inside out syntactically, irrespective of
whether it serves any useful purpose.
It should be borne in mind that parallel TL
structures are as good as any and they should by no means be avoided or
considered inferior. On the contrary, the practical rule that the translator
will do well to follow is that he should use the parallel structure whenever
possible, and resort to syntactic or semantic transformations only if it is
unavoidable.
Thus in all cases the translator makes a choice
between a parallel structure and a transformed one in TL. Selecting the
transformation to be used in a particular case he draws upon his knowledge of
syntactic equivalents and the theory of equivalence.
The choice of
the syntactical structure of the translated sentence often depends on the TL
co-occurrence rules. The problem of co-occurrence is one with which the
translator has not infrequently to come to grips in translating different word
combinations, as the rules of combinability in SL and TL do not dovetail. This
lack of correspondence limits the freedom of the translator's choice and
compels him to employ special techniques to overcome this barrier,
Translations from English into Uzbek give ample
proof of the significance of this difference in co-occurrence. Just try Io
render into Uzbek such combinations as "a hopeful voice", "a
successful leader", "a cooperative assistance", etc. and you
will see that they are easy to understand but cannot be translated "as they
are" since the corresponding Uzbek words do not come together.
Dealing with such problems translators use one of
the following methods: they cither replace one or both members of the original
combination to make possible the same type of structure in translation, or
they transfer the dependent member to another structure, or they introduce some
additional elements (words) through which the members of the combination can be
joined syntactically.
Let us give examples.
Some of these countries have established new
constitutions.
After all, successful leaders are those who have
achieved good successes and the original meaning is fully preserved in (he
translation, though in a rather long-winded manner.
An additional way to deal with the problem of
co-occurrence is through a choice of different parts of speech. "A cooperative
assistance" is difficult to translate into Uzbek where «ҳамкорларга ёрдам» is an unacceptable
combination. But if both words were translated as nouns the problem would be
solved:
The change in the parts of speech is a common
procedure in translation. It often enables the translator to modify his variant
to improve its stylistic or emotional effect. So, for 'The wind was becoming
stronger" the translator has the choice of “Мен қўпол бўлмоқчимасдим” for “I didn’t mean to
be rude”, he may choose “Мен қўполлик қилмоқчимасдим”
Sometimes, the use of a different part of
speech is unavoidable: "He was furious" – “У тутоқиб кетганди”
The elements
of the translator's techniques described above give only a general idea of his
professional strategy. Translation is a creative process of search and
discovery and it takes much ingenuity and effort to apply the general
principles of the translation theory to the practical problems.
§ 4. The basic ways of translating the Parallel
Constructions from Uzbek into English
The general view in translation studies came to
be that equivalents were relations between texts in different languages rather
than between languages themselves. When the languages are non-relative
especially Uzbek - English and the grammatical structures are different the
interpreter must be more creative and be ready to change the structure of the
sentences given in the speech of the speaker. '
The more interpreters are in a position to
express the speaker's ideas in their own words, the better will be the quality
of communication between the speaker and the audience, the interpreter
being merely a medium for that communication. This is surely the greatest
paradox about the interpreter: the more creative the interpreters they are
faithful to the text; the more original they are to communication-, the less
obtrusive they are to the participants in a meeting! The best creative
interpreters are the ones least noticed by their delegates.
In order to make a speech your own, as we said,
you must have grasped it intellectually, fully understood and analyzed the
ideas to be conveyed. But this is only half the battle.
"One cannot reject the importance of the
interpreter's target-language skills. The interpreters must continue to work on
their target foreign language, even if their mother tongues cope with modern
terminology. But also interpreters constantly enrich general vocabulary and
attempt to improve their style through regular reading of a broad range of
well-written publications. This is an activity, as well as following their own
press, which is particularly important for interpreters living abroad, perhaps
in no regular contact with any member of their own language community outside
their professional activities. To express ideas well, that is, efficiently,
clearly and elegantly, one must have the richest possible resources available
in the target languages and be also to call on them whenever needed.
Interpretation from Uzbek into English must
comply fully with the grammatical, idiomatic, stylistic, terminological and
pronunciation norms of the languages. The translation must be characterized by
a high level of linguistic flexibility and variation in the choice of words.
We try to provide the simplest possible model of
translation from Uzbek into English.
Interpretation from the mother tongue into a
foreign language must comply with terminological and pronunciation norms of the
target language to such a degree that the ideas, intentions and factual
information contained in the original speech and the attitude of the speaker to
them are passed on in such a way that communication is not impaired nor
misunderstandings caused.
If grammatical structures of the languages do not
coincide it is better to use not a long term, or verbose expressions we should
see close links of ideas clearly all speaker's ideas.
Only in
extremely simplified form of the speech of the speaker of a source language we
achieve the effective results in translation. The interpreter must avoid being
distracted by refinements and corrections. Simply, the interpreter must know
the translations of all words are of lesser importance, not focus their
attention on the speaker's qualification or attenuation of ideas, and state
them straightforwardly in their interpretation. Verbal redundancy is important.
The results of die investigation show that the
translation from Uzbek into English has its own peculiarities.
The ways of overcoming me difficulties which the
beginning simultaneous interpreter puts to the test depend on his creativeness
and faithfulness.
The syntactic parallel between Uzbek original and
English translation is impossible. Only the syntactic restructuring can help
the interpreter to eliminate the difficulties in translation from Uzbek into
English.
Reverse word order of semantic groups,
transference or shift the parts of sentences, micro review of the speech,
compression and others are the main ways of translation. The identical semantic
word order is not relevant to Uzbek and English, you know.
Each sentence has "Theme" which often
takes the syntactic formation of the subject and "reme" which gives
the information about what the theme does. Reme on the contrary takes the
syntactic formation of secondary parts of the sentence, the transference and
shift of the theme and Reme is the case for the simultaneous translation.
The analysis of the sentences showed that the homogeneous
parts of the sentence in the translation from Uzbek may be changed into the
subject in English. Such kind of restructing of the sentence makes the
translation easy for the interpreter. In this case the passive voice is often
used in English. For example:
Қишлоқда бозор механизмларини ривожлантириш, дехконлар сохиблик кисмини уйгонтириш, шахсий ё'рдам хўжаликларини кенг ривожлантириш асосан рўй бериши мумкин.
The development of market mechanism in villages,
several of the feeling of ownship among farmers, improving property relation,
development of farm and individual subsidiary farms are the ways of development
of market mechanisms in villages. The same picture can be seen in the following example too.
Узлуксиз
таълимнинг фаолият курсатиш принцигшарига таълимнинг инсонпарварлашуви, инсон
крбилиятларини ва таълимга нисбатан булган турли-туман эх
тиёжларнинг қондирилиши, мил лий ва умумбашарий кадриятлар
устиворлигининг таъминланиши, инсон, жамият ва атроф мухт ўзаро
муносабатларининг уйғунлашуви киради
|
Humanization of education - the explosure of human abilities and
satisfaction of people's various educational requirements, securing of
priority of national unil common to all mankind's values and hominization of
relations of personality, society and environment are the principles of continuous
education
|
Бобурмирзонинг Оградан кайтиши, унинг
Шимолий-Ғарбга қилган юриши ва улимидан сўнгги бўлган турт-беш ой
орасидаги вокеалар, кизи Гулбадам Бегим ва тарихчи Абдул Фазл ва бошқа
оилага дахлдор бўлган вокеалар ёритилишга харакат қилинган.
|
Bobur Mirzo's return
from Oghra, his north western advance, before his death four-five month's
events, his daughter Gulbadan Begim and the historian Abdul Gazl and other
family events were tried to be described.
|
Using the micro review in simultaneous
translation can make easy the semantic sequence of the speech of the speaker.
Micro review expresses the main content of the information. It develops mainly
the guessing and predicting skill. II is a kind of text compression. So, micro
review makes ал edited sensible text. Simultaneous editing of a text is the
making micro blocks on syntagmatic level and finishing unfinished sentences.
Example
Франс
Пресс агентлиги хабар беришича Анголада колониалист-ларнинг харакатига карши
митинг булган ва бир неча ўқувчилар ўлдирилган
|
There was rebellion of the people to actions of colonialists in Angola and some pupils were killed.
|
Нью-йорк якинидаги бир шаарда реактив самолетлар ишлаб чиқадиган 4та "репабликан авией-шин" заводининг ишчилари иш ташлашди. Касаба союз маъму-риятининг ай-гишича, тўқнашувда 12000 ишчи қатнашган.
|
Near New York there was a strike of 12000 workers in four aircraft plants.
|
Бундан
5 йил муқаддам мана шу бинода мана шу юксак минбар орқали
Ўзбекистонинг мустакиллигини ва ижтимоий йуналишдаги бозор иқтисодиятига
асосланган очик демократии давлат барпо этишдан иборат, деб каътий азму қарор
этганлигимизни маълум қилган эдик
|
Five years
ago we proclaimed independence designed to build democratic state based on
socially oriented economy.
|
Micro
review can be an immense help to tick off points in the mind.
Бу Муқаддас заминда хар қайси инсон
ўз фарзандининг бахт саодати фазли камолини кўриш учун бутун ҳаёти
давомида курашади мехнат қилади, узининг аямайди.
|
In this sacred land each person does his
best for his
children.
|
Thus, the simultaneous translator docs not
receive the massage wholly but gradually, little by little, sentence by
sentence. So the reproduction of the semantic structure of the information is a
dynamic process. The translator should be ready to connect several utterances.
As a result of connecting the several utterances we have micro review of the
messages.
The research revealed several more other ways of
translation from Uzbek into English:
1. If the constructions or words with the ending "лиги" (ex.
кўрмаганлиги, ёзмаганлиги пастлиги, йуклиги, юрмаганлиги and so on) are occurred
in the speech of the Uzbek speaker, it is better to split the Uzbek complex
sentence into several simple sentences in English translation.
Ўқитувчилар
педагоглар ва тарбиячиларшшг каттагина қисми яхши тайёргарлик курмаганлиги
уларни билим ва касби савняси пастлиги жиддий муам-булиб
колмокда, педагог кадрларетишмаслиги сезилмокда
|
Teachers, pedagogies
and educators, majority part of them are not well trained, their knowledge and
educational skill are poor, it is a problem, and the skilled pedagogical
personnel is lacking
|
The same restructuring maybe applied to the Uzbek
complex sentences with the words which have endings "ёттан" (ex. мухокама қилинаётган, эътибор берилаётган, кўриб чиқилаётган, хал қилинаётган, etc). It is preferable
to break the complex sentences into two or three simple sentences in English
translation.
Азиз дустлар!
Олий мажлиснинг бугунги сессиясида кўриб мухокама қилинаётган хаётимизни хал қилувчи мухим масалалар қаторида таълим тарбия тизимини тубдан ўзгартириш уни янги замон талаби даражасига кўтариш, баркамол авлодимиз келажагига дахлдор қонун лойхалар яратиш.
Dear friends! Oliy Majlis's today's session is
discussing the important questions. They are reformation of the educational
system, promotion of it to homogenously developed generations' draft laws.
Using '"s" instead of the preposition
"of in English translation helps Ю preserve the simultaneity of the speech of the
speaker and the interpreter.
2.
Our
investigation showed that more complicated verbose semantic word groups
of the Uzbek language may be substituted by a few words in its English
translation.
For
example:
Намибияда вазият аввалги холатга нисбатан ёмон
эди.
|
In Namibia the situation was retrogressed
|
Бу киши ўзини ёмон эканлигини ва салбий сифатга эга эканлигини тан олди (ўз айбига
иқрор булди.)
|
This
man was self-confessed.
|
Бу воқеа бир хил пайтда юз
берди.
|
This
event was serial.
|
Бу
китобнинг айрим кисмлари
нашриётда
чоп қилинди ва радио орқали ўқиб
эшиттирилди.
|
The
book was serialized.
|
Сиз
хохламасангиз хам мен
сизга
бу ерда ахлоқ азоб юзасидан қандай
тутишингизни айтмоқчиман.
|
I
am going to sermonize with you.
|
Бу иш тажрибадан ўтган.
|
This work was shakedowned.
|
Жаноб Браун бу сохада кўп ўкиган, тушинадиган ва
биладидаг инсон.
|
Mr Brown is a sofisticated man.
|
У қўли
билан мушукни қаттик босди.__
|
Не squeezed the cat.
|
Китоблар, дафтарлар газета ва журналлар устма-уст қилиб жой-лаштирилди.
|
The books, note-books, newspaper and magazines were stacked.
|
Жаноб Браун хафа бўлгандек ёки бирорта киши хафа қилгандек бўйнини эгиб юрарди.
|
Mr Brown was stalking
|
Кеча мен журнал ва газета нусхаларини доим олиб
туриш учун пул тўладим.
|
Yesterday I subscribed.
|
У марказдан узоқроқда шахарга яқин жойда яшайди.
|
He is a suburbanite.
|
Уйин охирида Агассининг бошқалардан
ортиқроқ кучи ўзини кўрсатабошлади.
|
Towards
the end of the game. Agassi's superior strength began to show.
|
Хозирги
вақтда бу масала энг
долзарб
муаммодир.__
|
Аt present this
question is topical.
|
Мен сизнн хурсанд бўлищингиз учун бу ишларни қилдим.
|
I tributed you.
|
У
ақлсизлик қилиб кишилар а гурух обрусига
зарар етказли.
|
She disgraced
the reputation of the people.
|
У узи
хохламаган ишдан қаттиқ хафа эди.
|
The work disgusted him.
|
Бу
ердаги мактабларга эътибор купроқ каратилиши
керак.
|
The
schools here must be forgrounded.
|
Шошилинчилик ярамайди, пухта уйлаб, эхтиёркорона, торозга солиб,
фикр килиш керак.
|
We must forthought.
|
Улар
душмандан ўз ерларини химоя қилиш учун баланд девор, кальа
ва бошка курилмалар билан ураб олишди.
|
They fortified their place.
|
Биз
хар доим қийин ишга айер
туришимиз керак.
|
We must gird.
|
Агар
билсангиз, бир мамлакатдан иккинчи мамлакатга утган жиноятчиларни тутиш учун
ахборот
алмашишт полицияга шамлашувчи халкаоо ташкилот
бор.
|
You know, there is an Interpol.
|
Биз бу ишни ҳар хил томонларини ўрганиб чиқамиз.
|
We layout this work.
|
Касаллиги туфайли ўзини бош-қалардан ажратиб
юрар эди.
|
Because of his illness he isolated himself.
|
Қайнаб турган сувда тухумни
пиширасиз.
|
You poach
|
Янгиликни магнит тасмасига ёзиб олинди.
|
The news was recorded.
|
The Uzbek verbose, complicated, semantic word
groups, i.e. those which consist of many words, and express the negative
meaning may be translated into English by adding negative prefixes to the stem
of one word.
For
exampie:
Команда щунчалик кучли эдики конкурсда уни ютиш жуда
қинин эди.
|
The team
was unbeatable.
|
Бу
вокеа аниқ маълум эмас ва тушинарсиз
эди.
|
This event was uncertain.
|
Купчиликни
розилигисиз бу амалга оширилган эди.
|
The work was undemocratic.
|
У
хали экин экиш учун чопиқ қилинмаган эди.
|
It was uncultivated.
|
У анча
вакт иш тополмай эди.
|
He was
underemployed.
|
Бу
шахарда жуда кам одамлар истиқомат қилар эди.
|
Few people were underpopulated.
|
3. Substituting by the synonyms may make easy for a interpreter
and it keeps the simultaneity of the speech.
For
example:
Хорижий мамлакатларда айникса Овропанинг ривожланган мамлакатларида, шунингек Америка Қўшма штатларида Захриддин Мухаммад Бобур, шахсига, унинг давлат арбоби, саркарда, улуғвор зиддиятли ишларига қизиқиш ҳеч қачон сунган эмас.
|
In foreign countries, especially in European developed countries,
in the USA Zakhriddin Mukhammad Bobur as a person statesman and his great
military activity , great difficult work are still appreciated
(instead of using the expression '"to be interested)
|
4.
If in the Uzbek speech there is a participle, the complex sentence may be
divided into compound sentence in translation.
Бобурнома
ёзилгандан қарийб 400 йилгача вақ ўтгач, аслият соҳибига
кардош булган туркий тилга таржима килинди.
|
Boburnoma was
written 400 years ago and it was translated into the Turkic language.
|
Thus, we have considered, briefly, the nature of
simultaneous translation. In this section we have discussed the simplest
possible model of the process of translation from Uzbek into English.
The students who are interested in simultaneous
interpreting should have a full command of their native and foreign languages
and thorough training in the skills of interpreting. They should possess
excellent fluency in their native language and good competence in their foreign
language.
Simultaneous interpretation requires the
fundamental skills of language performance to be applied, try to guess and to
sequence the ideas, to grasp the short information from the speech and try not
to depart from the original.
These are
the deadly consequences of apartheid, racism and colonialism, scourges of
humanity
|
Улар
апартаиднинг ёмон асоратлари ирқчилик ва
колониализмнинг инсониятга зарарлигидир.
|
Solutions
to the problems of development are best formulated within the context of the
over all socioeconomic and technological framework of the particular country.
|
Муаммоларни энг яхши хал этиш социал иктисодий ва
техникавий вазиятдаги хар бир мамлакатга тегишлидир.
|
In this
way, available resources are utilized to the maximum extend and dependence on
imported techlogies is diminished
|
Шундай қилиб ресурслар максимал равишдадир
манбалар импорт технологияси камдир.
|
То sum up, the interpreter must pick up the
halfdozen or so ideas that make up the backbone of the speech and lay
sufficient emphasis on them in the interpretation; verbal redundancies should
be cut down to a minimum; digressions, comparisons and compression may be kept
in the translation but should have the right relative weight in the overall context
of the speech.
The first key
to understand a speech is the identification of the main ideas; the second is
an analysis of links between those ideas. A speech is not just a sequence of
juxtaposed sentences. The sentences are related to one another in particular
way, and it is this relationship that determines the over all meaning of a
speech.
Conclusion
Having analyzed the
structural –functional properties of the syntactical stylistic devices
represented by Parallel Constructions and the ways of their translation from
English into Uzbek we come to the following conclusion:
1. Translating the Parallel Constructions is
difficult because words
and objects have no inherent meanings. It is people, influenced by their social
cultural environment and personal experiences, who assign meanings to words and
objects. Many concepts, such as freedom, democracy, or I carry different
meanings in different cultures.
2. The interpreter should keep in mind that words or concepts cannot be isolated
from the cultural and social context in which the language resides. Therefore,
social and cultural variables have important impact on the transfer of meanings
from one language to another
3. Dealing with Parallel Construction the translator should
know that knowing 2 languages is necessary but not sufficient to make one a
competent translator or interpreter. A competent translator or interpreter must
have been immersed in both cultures in order to appreciate the subtitles of the
languages and be able to select codes with meanings closest to the meanings
intended. The competent translator or interrupter must also be a good
communicator with adequate knowledge of the subject matter being translated.
4. The text containing Parallel Construction must be reader-focused when the
intention of a text is to communicate something to its reader. In other
words, a text in any language should be understandable by audience of that language
within the context of their culture.
5. Each communication message containing Parallel Construction has 2 dimensions:
content, which is the information conveyed by the message, and ' relationship,
which is the feeling the message invokes in its audience. Messages with a
positive relationship dimension generally have a much better chance of drawing
the attention of the target audience to it. An effective health communication
message for behavioral change needs to have a positive relationship as well as
accurate content.
6. The translator dealing with a Parallel Construction may be an expert in the
two languages involved, but may not be familiar with the subject matter being
translated. Therefore, s/he may not understand some of the concepts presented
in the source document. In some cases, the technical concepts may be expressed
using common lay terms with slightly different meanings within a particular
field. In such cases, the translator may think s/he understands the meaning of
the concepts and chooses inappropriate terms to express them in the target
language.
7. This frequent
error of less experienced translators dealing with the Parallel Construction stems
from the translators’ belief that the bi-lingual dictionary is the final
authority. Bi-lingual dictionaries often give word-for-word translation without
providing explanations or definitions that clarify the different shades of
meaning of a particular word within different contexts. Furthermore, sometimes,
translations in bi-lingual dictionaries might be correct but not appropriate.
For example, one bilingual dictionary used the term "impurity" for
"scum."
8. The Translator should understand that many concepts have different
connotations or different meanings all together in different cultures. When
these are translated literally, they are likely to be misunderstood by the
target text readers. For example, Vietnamese may describe a food as being “hot,"
which refers to its health effects on the body, not its temperature or
spiciness.
9. When a concept is new
to target text readers, many translators dealing with Parallel Constructions use
word-for-word translation since there written word to express such concepts in
the target language. Such translation, if done without definition target text,
might render the text incomprehensible or misunderstood.
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