Политический лидер-Хосни Мубарак
HOSNY MUBARAK
(birth 05.04.1928)
For years of board Mubarak has recommended
itself, if not as the big statesman, that, at least, as the sincere and
reliable Arabian head. Can solve numerous problems of the country, he,
nevertheless, uses the best efforts to prevent degradation.
HOSNY MUBARAK- " MISTER HONESTY "
Ten centimeters! Such distance separated
vice-president Hosni Mubaraka from death October, 6-th, 1981 when during
military parade was killed (more precisely to tell - Egyptian president Anvar
Sadat is executed).
He till now hears singing the bullets
flying around of him. Remembers that instant when one of aggressors has shouted
to him: " Stand aside! You are necessary for us not, the Pharaon is
necessary for us! " Sees Sadat, laying in a pool of blood...
In the evening of the same day, shocked,
but safe, Mubarak officially has informed compatriots on death of the head of
the state. In one week he became the president of Egypt. In that year to him it
was executed 53 years and he, apparently, was rather pleased with the role of
vice-president. But...
April, 15, 1975 Sadat has appointed the
47-years commander of Air Forces Hosny Mubarak vice-president.
- I have chosen him for loyalty and reliability, - he
has explained the step some weeks after.
Hardly later, speaking about Mubarak, the
Egyptian president will note his such qualities, as persistence, fidelity and
competence.
Wife of Sadat - Djihan which by then had
already sufficient influence on the husband, has agreed with this choice. She,
on an own recognition, found Mubarak" deprived any ambitions to remain
devoted to his spouse ".
Itself Mubarak, as he said, was surprised
and puzzled, when Sadat as caused him and has offered a post of vice-president.
Him career political or the statesman as he secretly dreamed become the chief
of the Joint Staff of the Egyptian army never interested.
It is necessary to tell, that so unexpected
choice has thrown into confusion also his nearest environment. However, soon
the reasons of this step of steel are clear: the president wanted to get
support of militarians. It was found out also, that a choice of the Egyptian
leader has affected, as spoke in retinue Sadat, "unity of sights on
rapproachement of Cairo with Washington "and an allergy" to Soviet
Union which suffered both that, and another.
Anyway, Mohammed Hosny Seid Mubarak (his
full name is those) became the second person in Egypt, right hand of Sadat, his
shadow. Before it he has made an outstanding career of the professional
militarian.
The Future president was born May, 4-th,
1928 in Egyptian country - in small village Kafr an ale - Musyl'ha (province
Manufia), in delta of Nile. His father owned a small site of the ground and
simultaneously worked in legal management of a province.
Hosny it was brought up not in luxury. His friends and
schoolmates were children of fellah. Probably, it the openness and simplicity
of the president speak.
He studied persistently, and after leaving
school parents advised him to continue education at Cairo university at faculty
of fine arts. However he has decided on other...
War of 1948 with Israel has shown: the
Arabian armies are disabled. In the Egyptian officer case inflow of youth began
from average layers, including from a countryside. Hosny Mubarak has selected a
trade of the pilot. Having finished with distinction in 1949 military college,
he served on Sinai, then was the instructor of air academy. Repeatedly left in
50th years in the USSR where it was trained in flights on modern types of
planes which Soviet Union delivered Egypt.
In 1956 Mubarak took part in
reflection English, French and Israel aggressions.
Abilities of the young pilot were noticed,
and in 1959 he was appointed the commander of a squadron of bombers TU - 16. In
some years he became the commander of a brigade. The maximum military education
has received in the USSR, in Academy of a name of Frunze in which studied in
1964-1965 years.
When in 1962 civil war began from Northern
Yemen, Mubarak appeared in structure of the Egyptian contingent directed to
this country. He took part in operations and has recommended himself the brave
and skilful military pilot.
By the way to tell, officers envying him,
using this fact, began to spread rumours, that Mubarak, being in Moscow, has
turned in "procommunist". A reality, however, another. He not bad
speaks Russian, gives due to planes of the Soviet manufacture, but he in any
way cannot be counted "procommunist". Faster on the contrary...
The most difficult test for Egypt became
1967. Israel has put heavy defeat of the Egyptian army. Practically the
aircraft completely was destroyed.
At once after war Mubarak was appointed the
chief of military college in Bilbeis. Of him have set the task: taking into
account the danger which has hung above the country to increase release of
pilots, having reduced term of their preparation with 4 till 2 years. It was
necessary to break all system of training. Mubarak days did not leave college,
personally watched observance of the daily routine and study of cadets.
He Noticed by president Gamalem Abdel'
Naserom, becomes the general of aircraft in 1969 and is appointed the chief of
a staff of the Egyptian Air Forces. In 1972 he already - the commander military
- air forces and simultaneously the deputy minister of defense.
These posts have allowed him to
reorganize the Egyptian aircraft which was not answering at that time modern
requirements and to prepare it for war with Israel, begun October, 6, 1973. It
is necessary to recognize, that then the Air Forces of Egypt have achieved
impressing results.
Mubarak becomes the national hero,
receives from hands Sadat " Star of Sinai" - the highest Egyptian
military award - and погоны the general of army. Military
"ascention" he is a native of simple family - is obliged to epoch of
Nasere. To political rise of him has pushed Sadat, having appointed
vice-president and, thus, having opened him a way to the supreme authority.
Since then this broad-shouldered, a dense
constitution the general began to seize art of political "pilotage".
Sadat has given him for this purpose the ample opportunities, having made him
some kind of " departure ambassador ". He has assigned on Mubarak
performance delicate, sometimes difficult assignments.
Aspiration of Sadat to play the leading
part on international scene, his often trips abroad gave Mubarak an opportunity
to strengthen the positions inside the country. He began that has reorganized
political police and confidential services which have penetrated into all chink
the Egyptian society. He, certainly, did not manage to cure all illnesses of
these departments, but as a result of the carried out cleaning he could get rid
of the elements which have compromised.
Becomingin 1978 vice-president national -
democratic, created by Sadat in exchange him of the spoiled Arabian socialist
union, Mubarak has got influential friends, that has strengthened his position
even more.
During six with superfluous years
vice-president honesty put into practice a policy of the cartridge. In the top
echelons of power about him responded yours faithfully, marked his
intelligence, natural sharpness, hardness and frankness, serviceability.
Simple Egyptians appreciated
vice-president incorruptibility. He has managed to remain away from corruption
with which his relatives, many high-ranking officials, which were infected
Sadat, not hesitating, plundered the country. It is no surprising, that
Egyptians till now name Mubarak " mister honesty ".
Probably, he and would remain diligent
vice-president, but the bullets which have struck Sadat, have advanced Mubarak
further away - he became the president of Egypt.
INDEPENDENT FLIGHT
Mubarak has inherited from Sadat almost
monarchic mode isolated in the Arabian world and wallowing in external duties.
However in people and in the environment of secular opposition which many
representatives appeared at Sadat behind a lattice, coming to power new
president have met with the big hopes for changes.
"The New leader have supported
therefore, - known Egyptian journalist Hejkal, wrote in one of articles - that
he was the most suitable person, capable to disseminate the fear reigned in
Egypt and to heal the mental traumas put to the country. The person who would
not began to make grandiose plans was necessary for Egyptians, but also would
not finish the country before accident ".
Quiet, modest, but resolute - Mubarak has
provided transition of authority practically without a uniform false step. As
has shown time, the former military pilot who has gone in the first independent
flight as the head of the state, not only has not given in before getting from
Sadat troubles, but with honour has left many followed tests, having
strengthened the authority. Acknowledgement to that - participation of
president Mubaraka in meeting of chapters of the Arabian states and the
governments, taking place in Casablanca in May, 1989, and then his election on
a post of the chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU).
But it will be later... While Mubarak,
having borrowed a presidential armchair, has set free on all political
prisoners and has shaken hands with them. Members of the organization finishing
with Sadat, were prosecuted, and then executed or imprisoned. To tell the truth,
many secret extremist Islamic groupings soon were revealed, one of which -
"Al-Aksa" in May, 1982 has sentenced the president to a death
penalty.
However, due to the vigorous activity of
confidential services, Mubarak has managed to separate the "moderate"
elements of Islamic opposition rejecting violence as a method of internal
political struggle, from " incorrigible extremists ". In result, for
first twelve months of board he has released 4.000 Islamic active workers.
Running forward, I shall tell, that
Mubarak, knowing about the danger proceeding from Islamic extremists, avoids
drastic measures in religious sphere. He understands, that the problem of
radical Islamic fundamentalism still remains on the agenda. Though extremists
also are tired out in a underground, they at any time can appear, how it
already happened in October, 1981, when was killed (or is executed) Sadat.
As to secular opposition, that, having come
to authority, the president at once has declared readiness to start dialogue with
its leaders. He has resolved activity of opposition parties, and even their
representation in parliament. Besides he has agreed with renewal of the edition
of newspapers of opposition.
Aspiring to strengthen the
position, and at the same time being compelled to be considered with supporters
Sadata, kept key posts in the political and economic life, the new president
started to carry out gradual "desadatation". Under his direct
instruction were prosecuted the brother of the deceased -president Ismat Sadat
and his sons supervising roguish operations. Process above them has allowed
Mubarak to show the determination to liquidate corruption in the Egyptian
society.
The majority of those who watched activity
Mubarak at the initial stage, unanimously marked, that he has declared himself
as the figure of " new type ". When him have asked: " You are
going to follow What political line - of Nasere or of Sadat? ", he has
answered with a smile: " Own, certainly ".
On the spot has specified, that his policy
will be based on four principles: democratic pluralism, an openness, honesty
and the decision of economic problems.
No, president Mubarak did not call in
question (anyway, public) the basic directions of a political rate of the
predecessor. But tried to expand freedom of actions in the inherited
frameworks, refusing simultaneously from sensational gestures in style of
Sadat. Moreover, he did not try to disguise verbal demagogy problems facing to
Egypt as it was done by the former leader. In opposite to Sadat Mubarak did not
undertake ostentatious attempts to solve internal problems by reviewing the
study. But in the first speeches he constantly called for growth of labour
productivity, amplification of feeling of the responsibility, to social justice.
As against Sadat new the head of the state
abstained from promises, but invariable tried to give a new pulse to economic
policy. He slowly but to develop began truly in Egypt democracy, trusting what
exactly it will provide in long-term prospect political stability to a mode. It
is more than that, he has frankly declared people, that the government can
solve all problems facing to it.
- New Egypt will be constructed only by
work of Egyptians, - the president likes to repeat.
Nevertheless, Mubarak in the intention to
improve economy still recognizes that "infitah" - the policy of open
doors begun by Sadat, basically was correct, but it was put into practice
unsuccessfully and was discredited corruption, reigned in Egypt. Having received
thanking Camp-Daving to agreements "special" attitudes from USA,
president Mubarak tried to squeeze out from them a maximum possible. Both in
political, and in the economic plan, skilfully playing on aspiration of
Americans to be fixed on Near East.
Using such trump card as threat of
freezing, and even a severance of diplomatic relations with Israel, Mubarak has
received to some extent to influence a middle East policy of USA. Certainly, a
degree of this influence to overestimate does not cost, but it, undoubtedly,
is.
President Mubarak, certainly, appreciates
communications of Egypt and USA as receives from them two, and even it is more,
billions dollars annually as gratuitous gifts, loans and military credits.
These injections of steel for him that "lifebuoy ring" which keeps on
shallow the Egyptian economy.
But also here there are strict limits on
cooperation, is especial at a political level. So, for example, on the offer of
USA to help with construction of military base on Red sea for the forces of
fast expansion the Egyptian president has answered with resolute refusal.He has
declared, that Egypt will construct its itself and will keep there the control.
Americans can use it when Cairo will consider military intervention of
Washington necessary.
Never refusing "special"
attitudes from USA, Mubarak at the same time has made appreciable efforts for
restoration of normal diplomatic relations with Soviet Union which were
completely normalized in 1984. Practically all obstacles, long time braking
development of attitudes between our countries today are eliminated.
It is not necessary to think, however,
that " independent flight " passed president Mubaraka smoothly. The
Israeli intrusion into Lebanon in June, 1982 has caused internal pressure on
Mubarak with the purpose to change character of the egipetsko-Israeli
attitudes. One more test for him steel of excitement of 17 thousand employees
of forces of the internal safety, having a place in February, 1986. The army
has quickly suppressed these excitements, and the president, due to resolute
actions, has strengthened the positions even more.
AEROBATICS
In October, 1987 the National assembly of
Egypt unanimously has selected Hosny Mubarak the president on the second
six-year term. In November of the same year the League of Arabian countries
(LAC) has made the decision that its members can restore if will wish, full
diplomatic relations with Egypt. Nine countries, including Saudi Arabia, almost
immediately have directed the ambassadors to Cairo.
In December of the same year in Cairo the
flag above representation of Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was
lifted. Thus Mubarak has shown, that Egypt again is ready to play a role of the
"traffic controller" assisting negotiations PLO and USA, Jordan and
Israel about convocation of peace conference on Near East.
One of the key factors which have defined
finally success of a strategic rate of diplomacy Mubarak on full returning of
Egypt in the Arabian numbers, precisely thought over, consecutive behaviour of
Cairo in its contacts to Tel Aviv was. From the moment of coming to power by
the new president very successful form of the attitude of Egypt to Israel was
produced: " Prospects of development of bilaterial communications are
defined by the general situation on Near East, process of middle East
settlement ".
Such formulation (and Mubarak followed it strictly)
enabled to hold Israel on respectful distance. On the other hand, the similar
position obviously directed on protection common Arabian of interests, could
not remain unnoticed in the Arabian capitals.
Has not remained unnoticed and such fact:
president Mubarak - the unique Egyptian head of a high rank whom has refused to
visit Israel, despite of numerous official invitations. To tell the truth, when
him already "have absolutely got", and he could not resist to
pressing, he had to go at some o'clock per the small Israeli settlement located
in desert Negev. " I have made it against my heart... " - he has
admitted later.
Besides the Egyptian president willingly
offered the services for settlement of many bilateral conflicts, for example,
irano-Iraq. All this has helped creation of completely new representation about
Egypt, radical image distinguished from Sadat's representation. In many
respects this was promoted also by the person of Mubarak.
Sadat loved formal receptions,
magnificent suppers, ceremonial. Mubarak does not love high life, hates
everything, that, in his opinion, is an excess. Sadat adored to appear on
public in motley military uniforms at numerous awards. Mubarak does not put on
the form since the civil post has held.
Sadat was completely corrupt, Mubarak - the
incorruptible patriot. Sadat spent time in magnificent palaces. Mubarak lives
in the small 2-storeyed country house constructed by him(it) on own means
still(even) in 1971.
Sadat the born actor, the fan of light of a
stage and long tiresome speeches. Mubarak has no eloquence, but he also is
deprived propensities of the predecessor to eccentric to theatrical gestures,
frankly dislikes chatterers.
Intellectuals laugh at him, tell about
him every possible histories. But not malicious, as about Sadat.
Mubarak it is sincerely devoted to business
of democracy, Sadat only dexterously juggled with this term. The new president
in practice has proved, that his performances in protection of a personal
freedom - not mere words. At him political life in the country began more
democratic, than at Sadat.
In Egypt many consider, that Mubarak,
becoming the witness of attempt at the predecessor, has learnt from this the
important lesson: it is better to move forward gradually and to risk only
insignificant failures, than to try to supervise over the country in the
dictatorial style of Sadat fraught with shocks. Probably, for this reason care,
the pragmatism, moderation and a sequence became distinctive features of a
political rate at the new president.
Naming Mubarak "embodiment of
care", already mentioned Heikal emphasizes, that it "care of the
skilled pilot to which before he will lift the plane in top, the exact data on
weather, loading and other data " are necessary.
In opinion of one western diplomat,
Mubarak, in essence, has remained " the rectilinear commander who gives
orders and expects obedience ". But he not the dictator. He first of all
the militarian who annoys if his orders are not carried out.
Egyptians in the greater degree, than
inhabitants of other countries, appreciate a shade of some greatness in the
heads. Therefore many criticize Mubarak for his modest suits, the not refined
speech and excessive shyness. They consider, that he has not enough scope of
the present statesman.
Anyway, but due to persistence and thin
feeling of a step president Mubarak has managed to rally Egypt and to return to
it former authority. Arabs could not understand unpredictable of Sadat and did
not trust him. Mubarak with his consecutive and realistic foreign line to them
it be clear and causes trust. With him want to deal.
Year of 1989 became rotary both for Egypt,
and for Mubarak. The president started to play more and more appreciable role
on middle East, African and even world stages.
The National hero Egyptians come back of
Casablanca Mubarak where there passed the interArabian meeting have met. At
this summit the president of Egypt already in the first speech with
resoluteness inherent in him has let know, that Cairo is going to provide to
itself indisputable leadership in the Arabian world.
Alongside with increase of the prestige
abroad, the Egyptian president has strengthened the authority and inside the
country.
The Ministry of Educatuon of the Russian Federation
The State University of Humanitarian
Sciences
The Department of Foreign Languages
HOSNY MUBARAK – THE PRESIDENT OF EGYPT
The student of the first year
the Department of political studies
Nikolaeva Ekaterina Alekseevna
Moscow, 2002
CONTENTS:
Introduction.
1. Hosny Mubarak – “Misner
Honesty”.
2. Independent fligyt.
3. Aerobatics.
Conclusion.
Literature.
INTRODUCTION
In an extreme
antiquity the territory of Egypt became a cradle of one of the first in a
history of mankind of civilizations. It many times was exposed to invasions of
foreign conquerors. In 1882 Egypt was occupied by England, in 1914 is posted by
the English protectorate. Formal declaration Egypt as independent kingdom has
taken place in 1922. Having imposed to Egypt in 1936 the unequal contract,
England continued to occupy a zone of Suez canal. June, 18, 1953 Egypt is
proclaimed by republic.
After revolution of 1953 at life of the
oustanding figure of the Arabian national-liberation movement of president
Nasera in Egypt progressive social and economic transformations were carried
out. The antiimperialistic foreign policy, a rate on friendship and widespread
cooperation from the USSR and was consistently carried out by other socialist countries.
From the beginning 1970 years внетренняя and
the foreign policy of Egypt began to undergo essential changes. Its management
led by Садатом began to pursue a policy of " liberalization of economy
" and " open doors ", характеризовавшуюся wide encouragement of
the private capital and foreign investments. Over a policy of the Egyptian
management has prevailed proimperialistic a rate. In result the country
experiences sharp sociopolitical and an economic crisis.
The New Egyptian management continues to
carry out in basically a foreign policy leaning on close cooperation with USA.
Inside the country it has cancelled some repressive measures. The significant
number of political prisoners is released.
The constitution Working in Egypt is
accepted September, 11, 1971. The supreme body of legislature - National
assembly.
CONCLUSION
Many recollect, that in the first years of
board Mubarak has taken advantage in the interests of a condition of the
general simplification which has come after destruction of Sadat, and the
termination of the dramatized performances of the former president. Prudence
new heads of the state was perceived faster as the certificate of wisdom,
instead of as an attribute of shyness. He typed glasses, making special accent
on modesty and focusing mass media on reduction of attention to his person and
members of family. Among some other innovations he has sworn himself to limit
the speeches till one hour.
Today, as well as within service in the Air
Forces, president Mubarak wakes up in five mornings and prepares for breakfast
for family. From six up to eight studies reports and messages then leaves for
the office.
Till 15-00 - meetings with
foreign delegations, meetings with members of the government and experts. Then
two school hours sports in club of the Air Forces - gymnastics and
"squash" (game reminding tennis). The tightened figure the president
can give odds to young people.
In the Evening - continuation of a working
day.
For years of board Mubarak has recommended
itself, if not as the big statesman, that, at least, as the sincere and
reliable Arabian head. Can solve numerous problems of the country, he,
nevertheless, uses the best efforts to prevent decline.
The tasks worth today before the president,
hard for Egypt is located in region where the extremism represents the usual
phenomenon, and the moderate approach - exception.
Hosny Mubarak can make still very much. The
only thing, that he should not make is to wait...
LITERATURE
1) The directory of “The Country of the world”, 1986.
2)
The big
encyclopaedic dictionary, 1991.
3)
The concise
Oxford dictionary of politics, 2001.