Phonetics as a branch of linguistics
THE
MINISTRY OF HIGHER SOCONDARY SPETIAL EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
THE
UZBEK STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY
I
ENGLISH FACULTY
PHONETICS
AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTIC
Student: Rakhmankulova
Regina
Group: 314 «B»
Scientific advisor:
Chutpolatov
TASHKENT
2010
CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II. Main part
1. Phonetics as a Branch
of linguistics
2. Aspects, Types and
methods of phonetics
3. History of phonetics
III. Conclusion
IV. Bibliography
I.
Introduction
This course
paper is dedicated to the theme “Phonetics as a branch of linguistic”. The
study of phonetics and phonetics as a branch of linguistic has always been one
of the most interesting, disputable and important problems of theoretical
phonetics of modern English. Phonetics is a field in linguistics that
specializes in studying single sounds within language. Phonetics concerns
itself with how the sounds are produced, how they sound to other listeners and
how the brain perceives the sounds. Like all linguistic fields, phonetics
studies all languages.
The main aim
of the present course paper is to give information about phonetics and its contribution
in linguistic.
The main aim
of our present research puts forward the following tasks to fulfill:
-Articulatory
phonetics is the study of how speech is made with the mouth, tongue and lungs.
-Acoustic
phonetics is the study of how speech sounds acoustically, such as speech
frequency and harmonics.
-Auditory
phonetics is the study of how speech is perceived by the brain.
The main
material of given course paper is taken from different books on theoretical and
practical phonetics as such English Phonetics: a Theoretical Phonetics of
Modern English (by Abduazizov A.A. T., '1986), a Theoretical Course. SEMINAR
(by Sokolova M.A. and others. M., 1991), a Theoretical Course of English
Phonetics (by Leontyeva S. F. M., 2002), a Theoretical Course (by Vassilyev V.
A. M., 1970), a Pronunciation Theory of English (by Alimardanov R. A. T.,
2009).
The
theoretical value of the present course paper is that the theoretical part of
the work can be used in delivering lectures on the Theoretical Phonetics of
Modern English.
The practical
value of the present course paper is that the practical results gained by
investigating the giving problem may be used as examples or mini-tests in
seminars and practical lessons of English Phonetics.
Structurally
the present research work consists of four parts – Introduction, Main part,
Conclusion and Bibliography.
II. Main part
1. PHONETICS
AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS
Language as
“the most important means of human intercourse” exists in the material form of
speech sounds. It cannot exist without being spoken. Oral speech is primary
process of communication by means of language. Written speech is secondary; it
presents what exists in oral speech.[1]
Linguistic
signals first said to be composed of some units, which are divided into
significant and non - significant ones. The relationship between all the units
or elements of a language includes different notions starting from sounds,
morphemes, words, word combinations and ending up with phrases. The scientific
study of a language involves an explanation of a mass of notions in terms of a
rigorously organized and highly patterned system - the link between the units.
The whole system of relation of linguistic units forms a system of a language.
The character of a system, or the way this system works explain the structure
of a language. All languages differ in systems and structures.
Phonetics is
concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized or given
audible shade: the nature of these noises, their combinations, and their
functions in relation to the meaning. Phonetics studies the sound system of the
language, that is segmental phonemes, word stress, syllabic structure and
intonation.
It is
primarily concerned with expression level. However, phonetics is obliged to
take the content into consideration too, because at any stage of the analysis,
a considerable part of the phonetician's concern is with the effect which the
expression unit he is examining and its different characteristics have on
meaning.
Only
meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech, and the science of
phonetics, in principle at least, is concerned only with such sounds produced
by a human vocal apparatus as are or may be earners of organized information of
language.
Consequently,
phonetics is important in the study of language. An understanding it is a
prerequisite to any adequate understanding of the structure of working of
language. No kind of linguistic study can be made with but consonant consideration
of the material on the expression level.
It follows
from this, that phonetics a basis brunch or fundamental brunch of linguistics,
that is why phonetics claims to be of equal importance with grammar and
lexicology. Phonetics has two main divisions: phonology, the Study of sound
patterns of languages, of how a spoken language functions as a
"code", and the study of substance, that carries the code. It shows that
there is a close relationship between the language and thought. In modern
linguistics this relationship is explained the terms of distinctions: substance
and form. By the term "substance" we mean the material - carries of
all the elements of a language and the term form" we mean linguistic
concepts. Human speech is called the "phonic substance" in which
linguistic forms are manifested. The speech may be either oral or written. The
term "phonetics" comes - from the Greek word "pho:n" -
meaning sound, voice and "-tica" - a science. So, phonetics is a
special science which studies the phonetic substance and expressions area of
the language. The linguistic form and content are described by other brunches
of linguistics, namely grammar (morphology and syntax) lexicology (vocabulary,
the formation and the meaning of the words) and stylistics (expressive -
emotional meaning). Human speech is the result of a highly complicated series
of events. The formation of the concept takes place at a linguistic level, that
is in the brain of the speaker;
This stage may
be called psychological. The message formed within the brain 1s transmitted
along the nervous system to the speech organs. Therefore we may say that the
human brain controls the behaviour of the articulating organs which effects in
producing a particular pattern of speech sounds. This second stage may be
called physiology cat. The movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air
stream thus producing sound waves. Consequently the third stage may be called
physical or acoustic. Further, any communication requires a listener, as well
as a speaker. So, the last stages are the reception of the sound waves by the
listener's ,hearing physiological apparatus, the transmission of the spoken
message through the nervous system to the brain and the 1 i n g u i s t i c
interpretation of the information conveyed.[2]
In accordance
with their linguistic function the organs of speech may be grouped as follows: -
The repertory or power mechanism furnishes the flow or the air which is the
first requisite for the production of speech sounds. This mechanism is formed
by the lungs, the wind pipe and the bronchi. The energy which is regulated by
the power mechanism. Regulating the force of the air - wave the lungs produce
variations in the intensity of speech sounds. Syllabic pulses and dynamic
stress are directly related to the behavior of the muscles which activate this
mechanism.
From the lungs
through the wind - pipe the air - stream passes to the upper stages of the
vocal tract. First of all it passes to the larynx containing the vocal cords.
The function
of the vocal cords consists in their role as a vibrator set in motion by the
air - stream sent by the lungs. At least two actions of the vocal cords as a
vibrator should be mentioned.
The opening
between the vocal cords is known as the glottis.
The most
important speech function of the vocal cords is their role in the production of
voice. The effect of voice is achieved when the vocal cords are brought
together and vibrate when subjected to the pressure of the air - passing from
the lungs. This vibration is caused by compressed air forcing an opening of the
glottis and the following reduced air - pressure permitting the vocal cords to
come together.
The height of
the speaking voice depends on the frequency of the vibrations.
The more
frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the pitch is. From the larynx the
stream passes to the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavities. The shapes of
these Cavities modify the note produced in the larynx thus giving rise to
particular speech sounds. ..
The following
four main types of phonetics may be distinguished:
1. Special phonetics
is concerned with the study of phonetics system of a concrete language. When
the phonetic system is studied in its static form, at a particular period
(synchronically, we speak about descriptive phonetics). When the system is
studied in its historical development (diachronically) we speak about
historical, or evolutionary phonetics.
Historical
phonetics uses the philological method of investigation. It studies written
documents and compares the spelling and pronunciation of one and the same word
in different periods of the history of the language.[3]
2. General
Phonetics which studies the human sound producing possibilities, the
functioning of his speech mechanism and the ways they are used in all languages
to pronounce speech sounds, syllables, stress and intonation. It is apart of
General Linguistics.
3. Descriptive
Phonetics studies the phonetic system of a certain language. For example:
English Phonetics, Uzbek Phonetics etc.
4. Historical
or Diachronical Phonetics which studies the changes a sound undergoes in the
development of a language and languages.
5. Comparative
- Typological Phonetics. It studies the phonetic features of two or more
languages of different system such as English, Russian, Uzbek etc. It is part
of Comparative - Typological Linguistics.
2. ASPECTS, TYPES
AND METHODS OF PHONETICS
Any segment of
a language consist of a sound chain which is specified by some articulatory,
acoustic and perceptual features. But not all the phonetic features function to
distinguish words, morphemes and phrases and some of them cannot serve this
purpose. Thus, it is the function of distinction and also identification which
is characteristic of all linguistic units. According to their functions
phonetic units - sounds, syllables, stress and intonation can be described
linguistically and classified to some groups or subgroups. Thus, Phonetics has
four main aspects: articulatory (physiological), acoustic (physic), perceptual
(auditory) and phonological (social, functional, linguistic).
The branch of
phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in motion, the movements
of the speech organs and coordination of these movements, in-the production of
single sounds and trains of sounds is called articulatory phonetics.[4]
Acoustic
phonetics studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker's mouth
and the listener's ear. until recently, articulatory phonetics has been the
dominating branch, and most descriptive work has been done in articulatory
terms.
The branch of
phonetics investigating the hearing process is known as auditory phonetics Its
interests lie more in the sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, than
in the physiological working of the ear or the nervous activity between the ear
and the brain. The means by which we discriminate sounds - quality, sensation
of pitch, " loudness and length", are relevant here. The noises we
hear may be classified in terms of three features : continuity, resonance and
timber.
As for the
phonological aspect it differs from all the above mentioned three aspects. The
theoretical study which sets up to account all the phonetic distinction of a
language is called phonology. Some linguists prefer the terms phonemics and
phonematics. Phonology is one of the aspects of studying. Phonetics data : otherwise
it is purely linguistic and social aspect of studying phonetics.
Phonetics in
the wider sense includes phonology as distinct from morphology, syntax and
stylistics. But in narrow sense the term phonetics is observed in our country.
Phonetics and phonology have two levels of investigation: segmental and
suprasegmental. Segmental phonology studies phonemes realised in various speech
sounds. Suprasegmental phonology studies the distinctive features realised in
syllables, stress and intonation. It is convenient to use the term phonemics
for segmental phonology a sit refers to the term phoneme itself. As to
suprasegmental phonology the term prosodics may be used. Thus, phonology may be
divided into phonemics and prosodics. The fundamental concept of phonemics is
the phoneme which is the smallest unit of a language system.[5]
The oldest,
simplest and most readily available method is the method of direct observation.
This method consists in observing the movements and positions of one's own or
other people's organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well
as in analyzing one's own kinesthetic sensations during the articulation of
speech sound in comparing them with auditory impressions.
Objective
methods involve the use of various instrumental techniques (paleography,
laryngoscopy, photography, cinematography, X-ray photography and cinematography
and electromyography). This type of investigation together with direct
observation is widely used in experimental phonetics. The objective methods and
the subjective ones are complementary and not opposite to one another. Nowadays
we may use the up-to-date complex set to fix the articulatory parameters of speech
- so called articulograph.
The methods of
investigation used in phonetics vary, but there are three principal methods:
(1) the direct observation method; (2) the linguistic method; (3) the
experimental method.
1. The direct
observation method comprises three important modes of phonetic analysis: by
ear, by sight and by muscular sensation. Investigation by means of this method
can be effective only if the persons employing it have been specially trained
to observe the minutest movements of their own and other people’s speech
organs, and to distinguish the slightest variations in sound quality. Every
phonetician undergoes a special training, in the course of which his phonetic
ear, and also his muscular sensation, are developed. By a “phonetic ear” is meant
the capability to distinguish the exact quality of sounds pronounced in various
sound sequences or in isolation, whether is one’s mother tongue or in a foreign
language.
The muscular
sensation is developed by constant and regular practice in articulating various
sounds. A trained phonetician should be able to pronounce sounds of a given
quality (e.g. an open back unrounded vowel, a trilled [r], a fronted [k],
etc.), as well as to recognize, by means of means of his highly developed
muscular sensation the exact nature of the articulation of any speech sound
that he hears.
2. The aim of
the linguistic method of investigation of any concrete phonetic phenomena, such
as sound, stress, intonation or any other feature, is to determine in what way
all of these phonetic features are used in a language to convey a certain
meaning. An accurate phonetic analysis (made either by ear or by means of some
instruments or apparatus) is of no use whatever unless it serves as a clue that
will help to interpret the linguistic function of a phonetic phenomenon.
The linguistic
method, therefore, is of paramount importance.
3. The
experimental method is based, as a rule, upon the use of special apparatus or
instruments, such as the laryngoscope, the artificial palate, the kymograph,
the magnetic tape recorder, the oscillograph, the intonograph.
Special
laboratory equipment, such as kymograph, spectrograph, oscillograph and
intonograph help to obtain the necessary data about prosodic properties of
speech sounds.[6]
3. HISTORY OF
PHONETICS
The term
phonics during the 19th century and into the 1970s was used as a synonym of
phonetics. The use of the term in reference to the method of teaching is dated
to 1901 by the OED.
Phonics
derives from the Roman text The Doctrine of Littera, dubious – discuss which
states that a letter (littera) consists of a sound (potestas), a written symbol
(figura) and a name (nomen). This relation between word sound and form is the
backbone of traditional phonics.[7]
The Ancient Greeks are credited as the first to base a writing system on
a phonetic alphabet.
Modern phonetics began with Alexander Melville Bell, whose Visible Speech
(1867) introduced a system of precise notation for writing down speech sounds.
History of English pronunciation:
English
consonants have been remarkably stable over time, and have undergone few
changes in the last 1500 years. On the other hand, English vowels have been
quite unstable. Not surprisingly, then, the main differences between modern
dialects almost always involve vowels.[8]
Around the
late 14th century, English began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift, in which the
high long vowels [i:] and [u:] in words like price and mouth became diphthongized,
first to [əɪ] and [əʊ] (where they remain today
in some environments in some accents such as Canadian English) and later to
their modern values [aɪ] and [aʊ]. This is not unique to
English, as this also happened in Dutch (first shift only) and German (both
shifts).
The other long
vowels became higher:
[e:] became
[i:] (for example meet),
[a:] became
[e:] (later diphthongized to [eɪ], for example name),
[o:] became
[u:] (for example goose), and
[ɔ:] become [o:] (later diphthongized to
[oʊ], for example bone).
Later
developments complicate the picture: whereas in Geoffrey Chaucer's time food,
good, and blood all had the vowel [o] and in William Shakespeare's time they
all had the vowel [u], in modern pronunciation good has shortened its vowel to
[ʊ] and blood has shortened and lowered
its vowel to [ʌ] in most accents. In Shakespeare's
day (late 16th-early 17th century), many rhymes were possible that no longer
hold today. For example, in his play The Taming of the Shrew, shrew rhymed with
woe æ-tensing is a
phenomenon found in many varieties of American English by which the vowel /æ/
has a longer, higher, and usually diphthongal pronunciation in some
environments, usually to something like [eə]. Some American accents, for
example that of New York City, Philadelphia, or Baltimore make a marginal
phonemic distinction between /æ/ and /eə/ although the two occur
largely in mutually exclusive environments.
The bad-lad
split refers to the situation in some varieties of southern British English and
Australian English, where a long phoneme /æ/ in words like bad contrasts
with a short /æ/ in words like lad.
The cot-caught
merger is a sound change by which the vowel of words like caught, talk, and
tall (/ɔ/), is pronounced the same as the
vowel of words like cot, rock, and doll (/ɒ/ in New England /ɑ:/ elsewhere). This merger is
widespread in North American English, being found in approximately 40% of
American speakers and virtually all Canadian speakers.
The
father-bother merger is the pronunciation of the short O /ɒ/ in words such as
"bother" identically to the broad A /ɑ:/ of words such as
"father", nearly universal in all of the United States and Canada
save New England and the Maritime provinces; many American dictionaries use the
same symbol for these vowels in pronunciation guides.[9]
III.
CONCLUSION
As we have
already above mentioned, language as “the most important means of human
intercourse” exists in the material form of speech sounds. It cannot exist
without being spoken.
Linguistic is
composed of some units, which are divided into significant and non -
significant ones. The whole system of relation of linguistic units forms a
system of a language. Languages differ in systems and structures.
Phonetics is
concerned with the human noises. Phonetics studies the sound system of the
language that is segmental phonemes, word stress, syllabic structure and
intonation.
However,
phonetics is obliged to take the content into consideration. It is primarily
concerned with expression level.
As we know,
only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech.
Phonetics has
two main divisions: phonology, the Study of sound patterns of languages, of how
a spoken language functions as a "code", and the study of substance,
that carries the code.
Human speech
is the result of a highly complicated series of events. The formation of the
concept takes place at a linguistic level, that is in the brain of the speaker.
This stage may be called psychological. Human brain controls the behaviour of
the articulating organs which effects in producing a particular pattern of
speech sounds. This second stage may be called physiology cat. The movements of
the speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus producing sound waves.
Consequently the third stage may be called physical or acoustic. The last
stages are the reception of the sound waves by the listener's, hearing
physiological apparatus, the transmission of the spoken message.
In accordance
with their linguistic function the organs of speech may be grouped.
The following
four main types of phonetics may be distinguished:
1. Special phonetics;
2. General
Phonetics.
3. Descriptive
Phonetics.
4. Historical
or Diachronical Phonetics.
5. Comparative
- Typological Phonetics.
According to
their functions phonetic units - sounds, syllables, stress and intonation can
be described linguistically and classified to some groups or subgroups.
Phonetics in
the wider sense includes phonology as distinct from morphology, syntax and
stylistics.
The oldest,
simplest and most readily available method is the method of direct observation.
Objective methods involve the use of various instrumental techniques. The
methods of investigation used in phonetics vary, but there are three principal
methods: (1) the direct observation method; (2) the linguistic method; (3) the
experimental method.
The term
phonics during the 19th century and into the 1970s was used as a synonym of
phonetics. The use of the term in reference to the method of teaching is dated
to 1901 by the OED.
Phonetics was
studied as early as 2500 B.C. in ancient India, with Pāṇini's account of the place
and manner of articulation of consonants in his 5th century BC treatise on
Sanskrit.
The Ancient
Greeks are credited as the first to base a writing system on a phonetic
alphabet. Modern phonetics began with Alexander Melville Bell, whose Visible
Speech (1867) introduced a system of precise notation for writing down speech
sounds.
English
consonants have been remarkably stable over time, and have undergone few
changes in the last 1500 years.
Around the
late 14th century, English began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift.
Later
developments complicate the picture: Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare
added theirs contribution in pronunciation.
Thus, we can
draw a conclusion. The course paper is dedicated to the theme Phonetics as a
branch of linguistic. Today, this theme is one of the most interesting,
disputable and important problems of theoretical phonetics of modern English.
IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Abduazimov A. A. T., 2006
“Theoretical Course”;
2. Alimardanov R. A. T., 2009
“Pronunciation Theory of English”;
3. Crystal, David Camb., 1997 “English as a Global
Language”;
4. Leontyeva S. F. M., 2002 “Theoretical
Course of English Phonetics”;
5. Sokolova M. A. M., 1994
“Theoretical Phonetics of English”;
6. Vasslyev V. A. M., 1970
“Theoretical Course”.
7. [1] Alimardanov
R. A. T., 2009 “A pronunciation Theory of English”
[2] Sokolova
M. A. M., 1994 “Theoretical Phonetics in English”
[3] Alimardanov
R. A. T., 2009 “A pronunciation Theory of English”
[4] Abdulazizov
A. A. T., 2006 “Theoretical Course”
[5] Abdulazizov
A. A. T., 2006 “Theoretical Course”
[6] Alimardanov
R. A. T., 2009 “A pronunciation Theory of English”
[7] Vassilyev
V. A. M., 1970 “Theoretical Course”
[8] Leontyeva
S. F. M., 2002 “Theoretical Course of English Phonetics”
[9] Leontyeva
S. F. M., 2002 “Theoretical Course of English Phonetics”